Couple Relationships

Literature Review on Marital Stress and Strengths

Literature Review on Dating and Domestic Violence

Literature Review on Pre-Marriage Education Programs

Summaries of Community Programs

Public Domain Research-based Educational Material

Review of Books and Resources

Literature Review on Marital Stress and Strengths

Bibliographies

Marital Commitment Bibliography

Bui, Khanh-Van T.; Peplau, Letitia A.; & Hill, Charles T. (1996). Testing the Rusbult Model of relationship commitment and stability in a 15-year study of heterosexual couples. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 22(12), 1244-1257.

Mathias, Jane L, Peter Mertin and Anne Murray. (1995). The Psychological Functioning of Children from Backgrounds of Domestic Violence. Australian Psychologist, 30(1), 47-56.

Sternberg, Kathleen J., Michael E. Lamb, Charles Greenbaum, Dante Cicchetti, Samia Dawud, Rosa Manela Cortes, Orit Krispin, and Fanny Lorey. (1993). Effects of Domestic Violence on Children's Behavior Problems and Depression. Developmental Psychologòy, 29(1), 44-52.

Marital Conflict Bibliography

Burman, B.; John, R. S.; & Margolin, G. (1992). Observed patterns of conflict in violent, nonviolent, and non-distressed couples. Behavioral Assessment, 14, 15-37.

Crohan, Susan E. (1992). Marital happiness and spousal consensus on beliefs about marital conflict: A Longitudinal Investigation. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 9, 89-102.

David, Corrine; Ric Steele, Rex Forehand & Lisa Armistead. (1996). The Role of Family Conflict and Marital Conflict in Adolescent Functioning. Journal of Family Violence, 11(1), 81-91.

Gottman, John M. (1993). The roles of conflict engagement, escalation, and avoidance in marital interaction: A longitudinal view of five types of couples. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 61, 6-15.

Griffin, William A. (1993). Transitions from Negative Affect During Marital Interaction: Husband and Wife Differences. Journal of Family Psychologòy, 6(3), 230-244.

Hazen, Alexes & Yvonne Mark. Domestic Violence: A Guide for Health Care Providers. Rhode Island Medicine.

Hill, District Judge Robert N. (1995). Family Homes and Domestic Violence Act 1995. Family Law, November issue, 614-617.

Katz, Lynn Fainsilber and John M. Gottman. (1993). Patterns of Marital Conflict Predict Children's Internalizing and Externalizing Behaviors. Developmental Psychologòy, 29(6), 940-950.

Kurdek, Lawrence. (1991). Predictors of Increases in Marital Distress in Newlywed Couples: A 3-Year Prospective Longitudinal Study. Developmental Psychology, 27(4), 627-636.

Margolin, G.; John, R.S.; & O'Brien, M. (1989). Sequential affective patterns as a function of marital conflict style. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 8(1), 45-61.

Sternberg, Kathleen J.; Michael E. Lamb; Charles Greenbaum, Samia Dawud; Rosa Manela Cortes; Fanny Lorey. (1994). The Effects of Domestic Violence on Children's Perceptions of their Perpetrating and Non perpetrating Parents. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 17(4), 779-795.

Waldner-Haugrud, Lisa K. and Brian Magruder. (1995). Male and Female Sexual Victimization in Dating Relationships: Gender Differences in Coercion Techniques and Outcomes. Violence and Victimòs, 10(3), 203-215.

Williams, Oliver J. and R. Lance Becker. (1994). Domestic Partner Abuse Treatment Programs and Cultural Competence: The Results of a National Survey. Violence and Victims, 9(3), 287-296.

Marital Satisfaction Bibliography

Jones, Warren H.; Adams, Jeffrey M.; & Berry, Judy O. (1995). A psychometric exploration of marital satisfaction and commitment. Journal of social Behavior and Personality 10,(4), 923-932.

Kelly, E. Lowell and James J. Conley. (1987). Personality and Compatibility: A Prospective Analysis of Marital Stability and Marital Satisfaction. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52(1), 27-40.

Storaasli, Ragnar D. & Markman, Howard J. (1990). Relationship problems in the early stages of marriage: A longitudinal investigation. Journal of Family Psychology, 4(1), 80-98.

Annotated Bibliographies

Marital Commitment Annotated Bibliography

PURPOSE: This study tested Rusbult's investment model of relationship commitment and stability using data from both partners of 167 heterosexual couples. The model successfully predicted relationship duration/stability over a 15-year period and is applicable to both men and women.

THEMES: Commitment, the 'tendency to maintain a relationship and to feel psychologically attached to it,' is marked by the extent that the person is highly satisfied, has poor alternatives and has made substantial investments (material and otherwise) in the relationship. Satisfaction = high rewards (ex. sexual satisfaction) and low costs (ex. partner's embarrassing habits). Quality of alternatives = rewards and costs of best available alternative to the relationship (ex. solitude). Investments = number and size of resources linked to the relationship (ex. time, shared material possessions). Some antecedents of long-term stability can be detected early.

METHODS: Rewards and costs were correlated with satisfaction; satisfaction, investments and quality of alternatives were correlated with commitment; and commitment predicted relationship stability. Methods used were multiple regression and path analysis.

CONCLUSIONS: Support was found for the Rusbult model of commitment and stability, especially to the extent that the theory successfully predicted long-term relationship stability. Path analysis showed a reasonable fit to this study and that the model is equally applicable to men and women. In addition, this study found evidence for more complex patterns than identified by Rusbult, such as association between quality of one person's alternatives and the partner's commitment.

Mathias, Jane L, Peter Mertin and Anne Murray. (1995). The Psychological Functioning of Children from Backgrounds of Domestic Violence. Australian Psychologist, 30(1), 47-56.

PURPOSE: The study examined the psychological functioning of children who came from backgrounds of domestic violence (defined as spouse violence together with any coexisting abuse directly involving the child, or more indirect abuse resulting from a child witnessing parental violence).

METHODS: Seventy-nine children of 52 mothers who had recently been residents of one of 10 South Australian women's shelters were given a battery of tests which included: Child Behavior Checklist, Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales, Neale Analysis of Reading Ability, Revised Children's Manifest Anxiety Scale, Children's Action Tendency Scale, Adapted Conflict Tactics Scale, and a background questionnaire.

RESULTS/CONCLUSIONS: A large percentage of children from backgrounds of domestic violence have behavioral problems which reach clinical levels and require some form of intervention. Specifically, these children are at risk of developing more emotional and behavioral problems, and withdrawn and over controlled behavior, and also show substantially reduced tendencies to choose aggressive responses to resolve hypothetical conflict situations. Social competence appears to be generally poorer, also.

DISCUSSION/INTERVENTION/PREVENTION: There may be mediating factors within the individual (temperament, coping style, locus of control) and their environment (social support, maternal functioning) which determine a particular child's vulnerability to and recovery from the effects of domestic violence. These mediating variables need further study.

PURPOSE: Mothers, fathers and 8-12 year old children completed several behavior inventories to assess the effects of various types of domestic violence on children's behavior problems and depression.

METHODS: The Children's Depression Inventory, Child Behavior Checklist and Youth Self-Report were completed by parents and 110 8-12 year old Israeli children from lower-class families identified through social service records. Thirty-three children has been physically abused by their parents within the last 6 months; 16 had witnessed spouse abuse; 30 had been both victims and witnesses of domestic violence and 31 had experienced no known domestic violence. It was hypothesized that children who were both victims and witnesses of domestic violence would have the highest levels of externalizing and internalizing problem behaviors because they experienced violence in two relationships.

RESULTS/CONCLUSIONS: Domestic violence had effects on child development that varied in magnitude and nature depending on the type of domestic violence and which parent reported the information about the child's adjustment. Specifically, the levels of agreement among informants were very low. Children's reports suggest that victims and abused witnesses were more likely than children in a comparison group to report depressive symptoms as well as internalizing and externalizing behavior problems. Mothers reported effects of domestic violence on their children only when they themselves were victims of violence. Fathers of children who were victims or witnesses were no more likely to report problem behaviors than fathers of children in the comparison group! The hypothesis was not supported by the data.

DISCUSSION/INTERVENTION/PREVENTION: Results must be obtained from multiple informants, and efforts must be made to document the severity, chronological occurrence, and nature of domestic violence to define children's experiences accurately.

________________________________________________

Summary:

Most research was done with military, college students, newlyweds

Abuse is classified as mild-moderate-severe.

Multiple perspectives cloud objectivity in the studies, i.e. social learning theory vs. psychoanalytic theory vs. feminist perspective.

Requests for shelter help are more numerous than the funding and services which are available.

Both men and women are abusers, engage in different forms of abuse and suffer different consequences (greater injury to women and women resort to using weapons more often than men to equalize the factor of size and strength)

Psychological abuse predicts physical abuse later

Varied results on the effects of witnessed and/or experienced abuse on children

arge survey results vs. shelter/police/court results suggests two different types of abuse suffered by women (common couple violence vs. patriarchal control)

Prevention/treatment for couples focuses on problem solving/negotiation skills

Problems with self-report measures such as Dyadic Adjustment Scale and Conflict Tactics Scale

More recommendations made for qualitative, not quantitative data in research

Acceptance of mild levels of abuse in all relationships (married or dating) and inconclusive research on the impact of 'attitudes toward abuse'

Lack of trained personnel for diagnosis, especially where medical treatment is needed.

There is a prevalence of dating abuse, particularly sexual where both physical and verbal coercion is used by both men and women

Commitment and accountability are lacking in many areas (couple/social networks/institutions)

Marital Conflict Annotated Bibliography

Burman, B.; John, R. S.; & Margolin, G. (1992). Observed patterns of conflict in violent, nonviolent, and non-distressed couples. Behavioral Assessment, 14, 15-37.

PURPOSE: The purpose was to identify characteristic patterns of behavior in four types of couples as they engaged in conflict discussions: physically aggressive couples, verbally aggressive couples, withdrawing couples, non distressed or low conflict couples.

LIT. REVIEW/THEMES: Some couples can express disagreement and disapproval and move to conflict resolutions while others maintain a recurring cycles of anger and disapproval and others escalate to more severe forms of aggression.

METHODS: Sequential analysis was used to retain the order of events and also permit an evaluation of the micro analytic interaction behaviors that comprise the conflict discussion. Videotapes were coded using a system to assess a number of positive, negative and neutral interaction verbal behaviors.

RESULTS: The analysis examined different dimensions of negative behaviors: offensive, defensive, intellectualizing, and positive behaviors. From the (video) frequency analysis it appears that there are significant differences between conflictual and non distressed spouses. From the sequential data it appears that physically aggressive couples, (compared with verbally aggressive and withdrawing couples) display interaction patterns that increase the probability of further verbal aggression. The patterns of non distressed couples show an absence of negative cycles of behavior.

Crohan, Susan E. (1992). Marital happiness and spousal consensus on beliefs about marital conflict: A Longitudinal Investigation. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 9, 89-102.

PURPOSE: This study was to assess whether spousal similarity on beliefs or the content of couple's beliefs about conflict is very important to marital happiness.

THEMES: Agreement on beliefs per se (ie. 'conflicts should be avoided,') is not important to marital happiness in early years (1-4 years), but the content of the beliefs is important. Implications are that happy and unhappy married couples have different cognitions about themselves, their partners and their relationships. (There were no specific cognitions described but previous literature was cited which investigated a similar question: Eidelson & Epstein, 1982; Raush et al., 1974; Levinger & Breedlove, 1966; Arias & O'Keary, 1985).

METHOD: Subjects were 133 black couples and 149 white couples who participated in the First Years of Marriage Study (a 4-year longitudinal study) at the Institute of Social Research, University of Michigan. Three beliefs toward spouses' orientations toward marital conflicts were assessed at two different times during the study: disagreements can be settled by talking; couples should avoid disagreements; disagreements in marriage are healthy.

RESULTS: Using both correlation (between several variables) and discrepancy scores, the study found little similarity between husbands' and wives' beliefs about conflict (at year 1 and year 3 of marriage), that dissimilarity is also not important to marital happiness and that the amount of discrepancy between wives and husbands in their beliefs about conflict was also not predictive of either spouse's marital happiness!

SUGGESTION FOR INTERVENTION/PREVENTION: Cognitive change in spouses' beliefs about conflict may modify behaviors during conflict and overall feelings about the well-being of the relationship.

David, Corrine; Ric Steele, Rex Forehand & Lisa Armistead. (1996). The Role of Family Conflict and Marital Conflict in Adolescent Functioning. Journal of Family Violence, 11(1), 81-91.

PURPOSE: The purpose of this study was to determine whether family conflict or marital conflict were more disruptive to adolescent functioning. It was hypothesized that marital conflict occurring in front of the child would be equally predictive of behavior problems.

LIT. REVIEW/THEMES: A review of 19 studies, Grych and Fincham (1990), found that in 79% of the studies, marital conflict was associated with behavioral and emotional problems in children. Amato and Keith (1991), in a meta-analysis of 92 studies, found that children in homes with high inter parental conflict had more problems than children in low conflict intact or divorced families. Jaycox and Repetti (1993) found child functioning to be more closely related to family conflict than to marital conflict. This study replicates the Jaycox and Repetti study but examines the effects of marital conflict occurring in the child's presence, which the Jaycox and Repetti study did not do.

METHODS: Participants were 146 adolescents, their mothers and their social studies teachers. Mean age for the boys (70) and girls (76) was 13.2 years. Each mother completed the Family Environment Scale (FES). Higher scores on the Conflict subscale indicate more conflict. Each mother also completed the Dyadic Adjustment Scale designed to assess the marital adjustment of couples. Higher scores on the DAS indicate more marital satisfaction. They also completed the O'Leary-Porter Scale to assess the frequency of overt marital conflict that occurs in the presence of the child or adolescent. Higher scores here indicate less conflict. The Revised Behavior Problem Checklist was completed by the mother and the teacher with regard to the child. Higher scores on each subscale indicate more problems.

RESULTS/CONCLUSIONS: Multiple correlations and regression analyses were completed on the data. Conclusions were that both marital conflict OCCURRING IN FRONT OF THE CHILD and general family conflict may operate similarly in how they negatively influence child functioning by increasing emotional distress. This distress manifests itself as internalizing behaviors such as anxious-withdrawal symptoms, and increases external problem behaviors (no examples given) through modeling. Conflict in front of the child predicted not only concurrent internalizing and externalizing problems, but both types of problems one year later. Hence marital conflict, OCCURRING IN FRONT OF THE CHILD, does influence child behavior.

PURPOSE: Study suggests a typology of five groups of couples that differ in marital interaction patterns, marital satisfaction, and marital stability.

THEMES: A balance theory of marriage [balancing negative and positive behaviors in a marriage] proposes 3 distinct adaptations for having a stable marriage. The constant factor is the ratio of positive to negative affect (RCISS speaker codes) during conflict resolution. There were 2 groups of unstable couples, hostile and hostile/detached, who could be distinguished from each other on problem-solving behavior and on specific negative and positive affects. The three groups of stable couples were:

Validators: Carefully choosing when to disagree and confront conflict and then conveying some measure of support when one's partner expresses negative feelings about an issue.

Volitiles: Lots of negativity is balanced by lots of laughter, positive presentation of issues, passionate romantic marriage.

Avoiders:Minimizing the importance of a disagreement which results in calm interaction and emotional distance in the marriage.

METHODS: Seventy-three couples were studied at 2 time points, 4 years apart. They had three 15-minute videotaped conversations on a) events of the day, b) a problem area of continuing disagreement, c) pleasant topic. Videotapes of the problem area interaction were coded by three observational systems, MICS, RCISS, SPAFF. Four years later at least one spouse agreed to complete a set of questionnaires assessing marital satisfaction and items relevant to possible marital dissolution.

RESULTS: The relative balance of positive and negative speaker and listener behaviors represent a range of adaptations that exist to making for a stable marriage. The ratio of positive to negative RCISS speaker codes during conflict resolution is about 5 and it not significantly different across the three types of stable marriages, ie. each group moderates the amount of negative affect in such a way to achieve roughly the same balance between positive and negative.

Griffin, William A. (1993). Transitions from Negative Affect During Marital Interaction: Husband and Wife Differences. Journal of Family Psychologòy, 6(3), 230-244.

PURPOSE: This study examined how covariates differently influence the 'transitioning out' (speed at which they move away from) of negative affect during marital interaction.

METHODS: Nineteen married couples engaged in video recorded two 12-minute conversations about their relationship, focusing on problem areas and pleasant memories. Spouses were separated after each conversation and immediately reviewed the video and rated his or her own affect during the interaction.

RESULTS/CONCLUSIONS: There were substantial gender differences. Wives were influenced by marital satisfaction, communication orientation, education and previous of negative affect. Wives maintained negative affect longer than their spouses did. Husbands were influenced only by education.

DISCUSSION/INTERVENTION/PREVENTION: Since negative affect reflects a person's internal state, this study relied on both the subject's self-awareness and their recall. This data is different from that usually collected to describe marital interaction.

Hazen, Alexes & Yvonne Mark. Domestic Violence: A Guide for Health Care Providers. Rhode Island Medicine.

PURPOSE: This is a three-page pamphlet giving brief guidelines about the diagnosis and treatment of domestic violence for health care providers and medical students.

DISCUSSION/INTERVENTION/PREVENTION: Information includes a definition of domestic violence, forms of abuse (psychological, physical, sexual), what to say if abuse is suspected, signs to look for in determining if abuse has occurred, what to do if abuse is suspected or determined, and resources with phone numbers. The pamphlet is specific and thorough despite its brevity.

Hill, District Judge Robert N. (1995). Family Homes and Domestic Violence Act 1995. Family Law, November issue, 614-617.

PURPOSE: This appears to be a restating of the Family Homes and Domestic Violence Act 1995. There are a few interpretations made about the implications of this act and advice given accordingly.

DISCUSSION/INTERVENTION/PREVENTION: In summary, the article says, 'The new Act provides a new and comprehensive code for the transfer of tenancies following divorce or the ending of cohabitation. Property disputes between former cohabitants are increasingly common, the new law provides a better framework for the resolution of such disputes.

Katz, Lynn Fainsilber and John M. Gottman. (1993). Patterns of Marital Conflict Predict Children's Internalizing and Externalizing Behaviors. Developmental Psychologòy, 29(6), 940-950.

PURPOSE: This study was a longitudinal look at how marital interaction affects children; measures included both child temperament and child gender.

METHODS: Fifty-six families with children 4-5 years old were seen twice. During the first interview a sample of the couples' communication style during conflict resolution was obtained, a self-report on marital satisfaction was given and temperament ratings of the child were made. The second meeting consisted of teacher ratings of child outcomes, self-reported marital satisfaction, and the couples' reports of considerations of marital dissolution. Measurement scales used were the Locke-Wallace Marital Satisfaction Inventory, the Couple's Relationship Inventory, and the Emotionality, Activity, and Shyness Scales of the EAS Temperament Survey for Children.

RESULTS/CONCLUSIONS: The specific conflict-resolution strategies that couples use to resolve marital disagreements appear to predict internalizing and externalizing behavior patterns in this children 3 years later. If couples are hostile toward each other when resolving marital disputes it shows up 3 years later as antisocial behavior in the child. When husbands are angry or emotionally distant their children show anxiety and social withdrawal 3 years later.

DISCUSSION/INTERVENTION/PREVENTION:Through observation it appears that children acquire negative patterns of negotiating conflict and show developmentally appropriate equivalents of the conflict-management strategies they see modeled by their parents.

Kurdek, Lawrence. (1991). Predictors of Increases in Marital Distress in Newlywed Couples: A 3-Year Prospective Longitudinal Study. Developmental Psychology, 27(4), 627-636.

PURPOSE: The main purpose of this study was to predict patterns of change in marital distress over the first 3 years of marriage for both husbands and wives from information gathered when the marriage began.

METHODS: A total of 310 couples (97% white), provided the following information for each of the three years of the study: a letter of informed consent, measures of the individual demographic and marital history variables, a measure of marital distress (Dyadic Adjustment Scale), measures of the contextual and investment variables (Relationships Belief Inventory, Bem Sex Role Inventory, Social Support Scale, Symptom Checklist 90-R, Rempel's Motivation Scale) and a measure of the child-related variables.

RESULTS/CONCLUSIONS: Patterns of linear change in marital distress were assessed by a growth-curve method in which each variable was regressed on the year of assessment for each subject, in the hope of modeling the direction and magnitude of change. Husbands who showed a linear increase in marital distress over the 3 years had, at the beginning of the study, few years of education, lived with their wives for only a few months, and did not pool finances. Wives had few years of education, earned a low income, had stepchildren, perceived many rewards from the marriage and few costs to the marriage, did not pool finances, and made a large emotional investment in the marriage. For husbands, increases in marital distress were linked to increases in dysfunctional relationship beliefs, decreases in satisfaction with social support, decreases in expressiveness, decreases in rewards, increases in costs and decreases in emotional investment. Findings for wives are the same except that increases in marital distress were also linked to increases in negative affectivity.

Margolin, G.; John, R.S.; & O'Brien, M. (1989). Sequential affective patterns as a function of marital conflict style. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 8(1), 45-61.

PURPOSE: This study reports the sequential patterning of important self-reported conflict interactions among physically aggressive, verbally aggressive, withdrawing and non distressed couples.

LIT. REVIEW/THEMES: Unhappily married spouses, compared to happily married spouses, exhibit more negative affect, attitudes, and behaviors and also exhibit fewer positive communications.

METHODS: Diary-like descriptions of naturally occurring conflicts were divided into acts and coded for five affective states: aggression, distress, withdrawal, affection and calm.

RESULTS/CONCLUSIONS: There are patterns of reciprocity for the above states. The physically aggressive spouses showed many sequential contingencies which indicate ritualized and highly reactive behavior in the couples. Aggression followed by aggression leads to more aggression in physically aggressive husbands, physically aggressive wives and verbally aggressive wives. Aggression followed by distress leads to more aggression for verbally aggressive and withdrawing husbands.

IMPLICATIONS: The data suggest Gottman's bank account model of marital distress, i.e. where distressed couples immediately balance the positivity or negativity scores while non distressed couples function from a foundation of trust and are more tolerant of short-term imbalances. They also support Revenstorf's et al (1980) escalation hypotheses which described distressed couples' propensity toward spiraling patterns of negativity.

PURPOSE: This study was to determine how children who experienced different forms of domestic violence perceived their abusive and non abusive parents. It examined the abilities of abused children to express positive and negative emotions about attachment figures and to discriminate between abusive and non abusive parents.

METHODS: A total of 110 children (61 boys, 49 girls) and their parents were studied. After the children were divided into four groups an appointment was made for researchers to visit the home and conduct private interviews with each child and his parents. Using a set of 20 paper doll-like figures and behavior statements made by the researcher, the Family Relations Test (Bene & Anthony, 1957) was used to explore how children in different groups viewed the relationships with their parents.

RESULTS/CONCLUSIONS: Children who experience different types of domestic violence appear capable of conveying their feelings about abusive and non abusive parents. They discriminate between positive and negative aspects of their relationships and do not appear to generalize feelings about abusers to nonviolent parents.

DISCUSSION/INTERVENTION/PREVENTION: They raise interesting questions about the ability to hold contradictory perceptions of individuals simultaneously and also about the factors that promote the development of internal working models in middle childhood.

Waldner-Haugrud, Lisa K. and Brian Magruder. (1995). Male and Female Sexual Victimization in Dating Relationships: Gender Differences in Coercion Techniques and Outcomes. Violence and Victimòs, 10(3), 203-215.

PURPOSE: This study expands on the trend to include male victims of sexual coercion in order to contrast their experiences with that of female victims.

METHODS: College students (males=202; females=220) from an undergraduate family course at a large Midwestern university were asked to complete a dating and sexuality survey during their first week of class. The students were given a list of situations (i.e. 'the other person got me drunk or stoned') and asked to indicate the most extreme sexual behavior that occurred with a date in that situation despite the student's wish NOT to participate. The behaviors were: 1=not applicable; 2=kissing; 3=breast or chest fondling; 4=genital fondling; 5=oral/anal/vaginal intercourse.

RESULTS/CONCLUSIONS: Results of MANOVA analysis showed:

Experiences of male and female victims are different.

Women are more likely to report coercion techniques that fit the definition of rape, such as restraint or being held down.

Men are more likely to report experiencing tactics that are associated with milder sexual violations.

The data suggest that men are more successful both at avoiding severe sexual violations, and coercing women into sexual activity. In contrast, women are less likely to avoid more extreme violations and are less successful when they become sexually coercive.

DISCUSSION/INTERVENTION/PREVENTION: It is important to note the kinds of verbal statements used by both men and women when they coerce. Both kinds of statements reflect traditional dating scripts. Accusing a male of being a virgin, impotent or homosexual may pressure men to engage in unwanted sexual behavior. Women may be pressured by other types of statements such as 'if you really loved me . . . .' People who reject traditional scripts may be more immune to that type of verbal pressure.

Williams, Oliver J. and R. Lance Becker. (1994). Domestic Partner Abuse Treatment Programs and Cultural Competence: The Results of a National Survey. Violence and Victims, 9(3), 287-296.

PURPOSE: This was a survey of partner abuse programs to assess whether or not the needs of minority populations are being met.

METHODS: A survey of 142 batterers' programs across the nation were the non probability sample. A self-administered questionnaire gathered data such as demographic characteristics, number of years the programs have been in existence, client service emphasized, whether a bilingual counselor was present, etc.

RESULTS/CONCLUSIONS: Little or no special effort is being made to understand or accommodate the needs of minority populations.

DISCUSSION/INTERVENTION/PREVENTION: Cultural competence occurs when: programs network with the minority community; programs locate outside consultants with expertise in working with minority clients; programs obtain information concerning service delivery and programming for minority clients; programs have at least one bilingual counselor.

Marital Satisfaction Annotated Bibliography

Jones, Warren H.; Adams, Jeffrey M.; & Berry, Judy O. (1995). A psychometric exploration of marital satisfaction and commitment. Journal of social Behavior and Personality 10,(4), 923-932.

PURPOSE/LIT REVIEW: A new instrument, Marital Satisfaction and Commitment Scales, was developed to measure marital satisfaction and commitment. (Marital satisfaction theorists: Dean & Spanier, 1974; Fincham & Bradbury, 1987; Marital commitment theorists: Johnson, 1991; Rusbult, 1980; Stanley & Markman, 1992).

METHODS: Six samples of currently married individuals (N-2004); selection of age, income, educational level and # of children with average of 2 children, 35.9 years old, married 10.8 years, predominately white, well-educated with income in excess of $40,000. Thirty-five items assessed marital satisfaction, defined as the degree to which the respondent expressed happiness and satisfaction with the marital dyad or with the partner, and fifteen items assessed marital commitment, defined as the degree to which the respondent expressed intention to stay in the marital relationship.

THEMES: Commitment and satisfaction are conceptually distinct phenomena. Satisfaction is spouses' overall sense of happiness and contentment with marriage. Commitment is spouse's intention to remain married despite fluctuations in satisfaction.

RESULTS/CONCLUSIONS: It showed that scales were reliable internally and over time, and supported the concurrent validity of scale interpretations. Regarding construct validity, marital commitment was significantly positively related to relationship length and church attendance and both satisfaction and commitment were positively related to the passionate (Eros) and selfless (Agapic) love styles and both scales strongly related to personal dedication. Also, the Satisfaction Scale predicted scores on an alternative measure, the Marital Adjustment Test. Comparisons involving measures of personality, relationships and emotions suggest that both satisfaction and commitment are related to positive and socially desirable experiences and states and inversely related to variables assessing undesirable and unpleasant qualities.

PURPOSE: Personality characteristics were measured as antecedents of marital stability and marital satisfaction for 300 couples who were followed from their engagements in the 1930s until 1980.

METHODS: Ongoing data was collected on personality, early social environment, attitudes regarding marriage and sexual history via several rating scales. In addition some annual reports were provided by the couples on the progress of their marital lives. Couples were tested and measured in person during interview sessions and five acquaintances for each couple rated the couples on the Personality Rating Scale and provided other information.

RESULTS/CONCLUSIONS: Twenty-two of the couples broke their engagements and of the 278 couples who married 50 got divorced at some time between 1935 and 1980. Personality characteristics (measured by acquaintance ratings made in the 1930s) were important predictors of both marital stability and marital satisfaction. The three aspects of personality most negatively related to marital outcome were the neuroticism of the husband, the neuroticism of the wife, and the impulsiveness of the husband. These three aspects accounted for more than half of the predictable variance, with the remaining due to attitudinal, social-environment and sexual history variables.

DISCUSSION/INTERVENTION/PREVENTION: Both a major strength and limitation is the use of averaged ratings by multiple acquaintances. It is an improvement over the self-report methodology used in other predictive studies of marital compatibility but is still not ideal.

Storaasli, Ragnar D. & Markman, Howard J. (1990). Relationship problems in the early stages of marriage: A longitudinal investigation. Journal of Family Psychology, 4(1), 80-98.

PURPOSE: This study attempted to a) provide descriptive information on couples' relationship problems at three stages of family development and b) study the nature of the couples' progress through these stages by using relationship problems as exemplars of changes in developmental tasks.

THEMES/LIT. REVIEW: The inability of marital partners to cope with their problems is one of the major contributors to marital dissatisfaction. There was strong agreement between male and female ratings of problems at each stage, the primary problems being money, communication, sex, relatives. Transitions between family developmental stages are a time of change and problems. Preventive programs should aim at improving the quality of couples' premarital communication in general and how to handle conflicts and promote intimacy. Major theorists are Markman, 1989; Blood & Wolfe, 1960; Birchler, Weisss & Vincent, 1975; Carter & McGoldrick, 1980; Fiske, 1980.

METHOD: Subjects were 131 couples who were recruited to participate in a larger longitudinal investigation of relationship development and marital communication; 65% were engaged and 35% were planning marriage for the first time. Instruments were the Relationship Problem Inventory and the Marital Adjustment Test, with MANOVA and ANOVA analyses.

RESULTS: Patterns support the assumption that two major tasks of marriage involve managing conflicts and disagreements, and promoting intimacy. For example, relatives, jealousy, friends and religion were more intense problem areas premarficantly less intense after marriage and this decrease in the intensity of exterior problems after marriage is suggested to be a functions of partners' feeling more secure about their status in the relationship.

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Literature Review on Dating and Domestic Violence

Bibliographies

Domestic Violence Bibliography

Bauserman, Sue Ann K.; & Arias, Ileana. (1992). Relationships among marital commitment in domestically victimized and non victimized wives. Violence and Victims, 7(4), 287-296.

Cantos, Arthur L; Peter H. Neidig and K.D. O'Leary. (1993). Men and Women's Attributions of Blame for Domestic Violence. Journal of Family Violence, 8(4), 289-302.

Cantos, Arthur L.; Peter H. Neidig, & K. Daniel O'Leary. (1994). Injuries of Women and Men in a Treatment Program for Domestic Violence. Journal of Family Violence, 9(2), 113-124.

Choice, Pamela; Lamke, Leanne K.; & Pittman, Joe F. (1995). Conflict resolution strategies and marital distress as mediating factors in the link between witnessing interpersonal violence and wife battering. Violence and Victims, 10(2), 107-119.

Goeckerman, Cheryl R.; Hamberger, L. Kevin; itally, but signi Barbara, Karen. (1994). Issues of domestic violence unique to rural areas. Wisconsin Medical Journal, 93(9), 473-479.

Hazen, Alexes & Yvonne Mark. Domestic Violence: A Guide for Health Care Providers. Rhode Island Medicine.

Hill, District Judge Robert N. (1995). Family Homes and Domestic Violence Act 1995. Family Law, November issue, 614-617.

Johnson, Michael P. (1995). Patriarchal Terrorism and Common Couple Violence: Two Forms of Violence Against Women. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 57, 283-294.

Kolbo, Jerome R.; Eleanor H. Blakely, and David Engleman. (1996). Children Who Witness Domestic Violence: A Review of Empirical Literature. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 2(2), 281-293.

MacEwen, Karyl E. and Julian Barling. (1988). Multiple Stressors, Violence in the Family of Origin and Marital Aggression: A Longitudinal Investigation. Journal of Family Violence, 3(1), 73-87.

Mathias, Jane L, Peter Mertin and Anne Murray. (1995). The Psychological Functioning of Children from Backgrounds of Domestic Violence. Australian Psychologist, 30(1), 47-56.

McDonald, Renee & Ernest N. Jouriles (1991). Marital Aggression and Child Behavior Problems: Research Findings, Mechanisms, and Intervention Strategies. The Behavior Therapist, 189-192.

McHenry, Patrick C.; Teresa W. Julian, and Stephen M. Gavazzi. (1995). Toward a Biopsychosocial Model of Domestic Violence. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 57, 307-320.

Mertin, Peter. (1995). A Follow-Up Study of Children from Domestic Violence. Australian Journal of Family Law.

Murphy, Christopher M., & K. Daniel O'Leary. (1989). Psychological Aggression Predicts Physical Aggression in Early Marriage. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 57(5), 579-582.

Neidig, Peter H; Dale H. Friedman & Barbara S. Collins. (1986). Attitudinal Characteristics of Males Who Have Engaged in Spouse Abuse. Journal of Family Violence, 1(3), 223-233.

Pan, Helen S., Peter H. Neidig, & K. Daniel O'Leary. (1994). Predicting Mild and Severe Husband-to-Wife Physical Aggression. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 62(5), 975-981.

Rynerson, Barbara C.; Fishel, Anne H. (1993). Domestic violence prevention training: Participant characteristics and treatment outcomes. Journal of Family Violence, 8(3), 253-266.

Shalala, Donna E. (1995). Domestic Violence is Not a Private Matter: A Comprehensive Approach to Preventing and Ending the Violence. UWLA Law Review. 26, 29-36.

Sternberg, K. J.; Lamb, M. E.; Greenbaum, C.; Cicchetti, D., Dawud, S.; Cortes, R. M.; Krispin, O. & Lorey, F. (1993). Effects of domestic violence on children's behavior problems and depression. Developmental Psychology, 29(1), 44-52.

Waltz, Catherine L. (1995). Domestic Violence Training: An Annotated Bibliography. Journal of Family Violence, 10(4), 425-431.

Dating Violence Bibliography

Carlson, Bonnie E. (1996). Dating Violence: Student Beliefs About Consequences. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 11(1), 3-18.

Foo, Louise & Gayla Margolin. (1995). A Multivariate Investigation of Dating Aggression. Journal of Family Violence, 10(4), 351-376.

Gray, Heather M.; & Fosher, Vangie. (1997). Adolescent dating violence: Differences between one-sided and mutually violent profiles. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 2(1), 126-141.

LeJeune, Chad and Victoria Follette. (1994). Taking Responsibility: Sex Differences in Reporting Dating Violence. Journal of Interpersonal Violence 9(1), 133-140.

McLaughlin, Iris G., Kenneth E. Leonard, & Marilyn Senchak (1992). Prevalence and Distribution of Premarital Aggression Among Couples Applying for a Marriage License. Journal of Family Violence, 7(4), 309-319.

Nightingale, Heath; & Morisette, Patrick. (1993). Dating violence: Attitudes, myths, and peer programs. Social Work in Education, 15(4), 225-232.

Pape, Karen T.; & Arias, Illeana. (1995). Control, coping, and victimization in dating relationships. Violence and Victims, 10,(1), 43-54.

Riggs, David S. (1993). Relationship Problems and Dating Aggression. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 8(1), 18-35.

Domestic Violence Annotated Bibliography

Bauserman, Sue Ann K.; & Arias, Ileana. (1992). Relationships among marital commitment in domestically victimized and non victimized wives. Violence and Victims, 7(4), 287-296.

PURPOSE: This study applied an investment model and social learning theory to understand victimized wives' satisfaction and commitment to stay married. An investment perspective suggests that greater effort invested in problem solving communication results in increased commitment to a relationship.

METHODS: Thirty wives who reported physical abuse and 58 non abused wives completed measures of marital stability, investment in marital problem solving and dyadic adjustment. Investment in marital problem solving was assessed by having the women indicate how much energy they have put into solving 34 common marital problems (Having meals ready on time has been . . . . ) and whether or not their efforts were successful

RESULTS/CONCLUSIONS: Women may remain in abusive relationships because of psychological entrapment. Greater NEGATIVE investment was associated with lower commitment. I.E. for victimized wives, investments which did not pay off covaried with decreased commitment. For non victimized wives, lower commitment was associated with failed investment in relationship functioning. Abused women may stay committed to a relationship to 'make good' on prior investments, even though those investments may have failed. This study did not confirm the investment perspective (Rusbult's model).

Cantos, Arthur L; Peter H. Neidig and K.D. O'Leary. (1993). Men and Women's Attributions of Blame for Domestic Violence. Journal of Family Violence, 8(4), 289-302.

PURPOSE: Attributions of blame for the first and latest episodes of violence were assessed in a sample of 139 couples who were referred to a mandatory domestic violence treatment program in the military.

METHODS: The Conflict Tactics Scale and the Dyadic Adjustment Scale were administered to each individual. In addition all husbands and wives participated in a conjoint structured interview in which both were asked about the first episode of violence and whether he/she blamed himself/herself or their spouse. Each spouse was then asked to classify the level of injury sustained in their last episode of violence.

RESULTS/CONCLUSIONS: More women (63%) than men (27%) received injuries. Both husbands and wives tended to blame the other more frequently than to blame themselves for both the first and most recent episodes of violence. However, significantly more husbands than wives blamed themselves for the latest episode of violence.

DISCUSSION/INTERVENTION/PREVENTION: When there is little agreement about the causes of physical aggression there is likely to be little acceptance of responsibility for the aggression. There were some problems with this study: 1) the assessment of blame in a conjoint interview, 2) retrospective reporting of attributions of blame for the first episode of violence.

Cantos, Arthur L.; Peter H. Neidig, & K. Daniel O'Leary. (1994). Injuries of Women and Men in a Treatment Program for Domestic Violence. Journal of Family Violence, 9(2), 113-124.

PURPOSE: This study attempted to simultaneously assess conflict tactics used by men and women and the consequences of that violence to the men and women involved.

LIT. REVIEW/THEMES: Although both men and women engage in and initiate physical violence, the context in which this aggression occurs has not been studied. Consequently, researchers have argued that acts of aggression by women toward men are not the same as acts of aggression by men against women (O'Leary et al., 1989, Straus, 1990).

METHODS: A sample of 180 couples who were referred to a treatment program for domestic violence in three military bases participated in this study. The sample was 43% white, 46% African-American, 7% Hispanic and 4% other. All subjects participated in a conjoint structured interview about physical aggression and injuries and then independently completed a written version of the Conflict Tactics Scale (CTS) regarding the same physically aggressive behaviors.

RESULTS/CONCLUSIONS: Though both men and women engaged in similar aggressive acts, the percentage of women reporting injuries, especially severe injuries, was much higher than the corresponding percentage of men. The injuries were also related to the use of more severe aggressive behaviors. In all couples either the husband or wife, or both, reported at least one encounter of physical aggression during the previous year, ranging from pushing, grabbing or shoving to the use of a knife or gun against their spouse. In 65% of the couples the husband or the wife reported having experienced injuries as the result of the violence. Men's injuries, caused by wives, were from thrown objects, kicks, bites, hits with fists, and threats with knives or guns. Women appeared to need to resort to use of weapons to cause injuries. Men were more likely to push, grab, shove, choke, strangle and beat up their spouses.

DISCUSSION/INTERVENTION/PREVENTION: Further research should address the intent and motives of men who are physically violent with their spouses. Results of this study contrast with the low injury rates reported for nonclinical populations. There may therefore be qualitative differences between the types of aggression reported in community and treatment samples. There is a need to address the impact and topographic dimensions of aggression in domestic violence situations.

PURPOSE: Study investigated mediating effects of men's ineffective conflict resolution strategies and marital distress on intergenerational transmission of wife battering.

THEMES/LIT REVIEW: Men who witnessed inter parental violence (hitting, verbal insults, etc) were more likely to use ineffective conflict resolution strategies (sulking, stomping out of the room, swearing/insulting, spitefulness, threatening to hit or throw, hitting/throwing), and the use of ineffective strategies increased men's likelihood of encountering marital distress and engaging in wife battering. Men who batter may be resorting to violence when other methods don't lead to effective resolution of conflict. Exposure to and perpetuation of violence lit review: Straus, Gelles & Steinmetz, 1980; Hotaling & Sugarman, 1986; O'Leary, 1988; Steinmetz, 1987.

METHODS: Sampled 1836 men via telephone interview, using the Second Family Violence Survey. Approximately 3/4 of the subjects were white and worked with a mean income of $20,000 to $30,000 and a mean number of 15.57 years living with their partner.

Subjects were asked questions in four areas: Witnessing inter parental violence (ex. 'Were there occasions when your father hit your mother?"); Use of ineffective conflict resolution strategies (swearing, refusing to talk); Marital distress (agreement about managing money, cooking, cleaning, etc); Acts of wife battering (minor: pushing, slapping; violent: threatening with knife).

CONCLUSIONS/RECOMMENDATIONS: Men who witnessed inter parental violence were more likely to use ineffective conflict resolution strategies which then increased the likelihood of encountering marital distress and engagement in wife battering. More research to identify the types of conflict resolution strategies used by men who have and HAVE NOT witnessed inter parental violence and who have and HAVE NOT engaged in wife-battering. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Goeckerman, Cheryl R.; Hamberger, L. Kevin; Barbara, Karen. (1994). Issues of domestic violence unique to rural areas. Wisconsin Medical Journal, 93(9), 473-479. PURPOSE: This article discusses a number of solutions for physician interventions with rural battered women, and presents possible dynamics which trap rural women in violent relationships. LIT. REVIEW/THEMES: Dynamics often intensified in rural areas include: societal and community attitudes; physical and psychological isolation; lack of assistance and public programs within access; lack of privacy. RESULTS/CONCLUSIONS: The physician can often help by his/her knowledge of local resources, providing an active role in providing ongoing and follow-up care, providing individual counseling, maintaining confidentiality, using ancillary resources, maintaining detailed documentation of all contact, being a community influence to promote prevention and intervention.

Hazen, Alexes & Yvonne Mark. Domestic Violence: A Guide for Health Care Providers. Rhode Island Medicine.

PURPOSE: This is a three-page pamphlet giving brief guidelines about the diagnosis and treatment of domestic violence for health care providers and medical students.

Hill, District Judge Robert N. (1995). Family Homes and Domestic Violence Act 1995. Family Law, November issue, 614-617.

PURPOSE: This appears to be a restating of the Family Homes and Domestic Violence Act 1995. There are a few interpretations made about the implications of this act and advice given accordingly.

Johnson, Michael P. (1995). Patriarchal Terrorism and Common Couple Violence: Two Forms of Violence Against Women. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 57, 283-294.

PURPOSE: This article uses evidence from large-sample surveys and from qualitative and quantitative data gathered from women's shelters to suggest that there are two distinct forms of couple violence taking place within families in the United States and other Western countries.

METHODS: (Review of previous research).

RESULTS/CONCLUSIONS: Some families suffer from occasional outbursts of violence from either husbands or wives (common couple violence). This represents the family violence perspective. The other form of violence comes from research in the feminist perspective and is called patriarchal terrorism. In this form of violence a man tries to 'control' his woman not only via violence but economic subordination, threats, isolation and other control tactics. These forms of violence are non overlapping phenomena that are assessed by different research settings (random large-scale survey vs. public service agency interviews), and characterized by differences in the type, frequency and intensity of the violence.

DISCUSSION/INTERVENTION/PREVENTION: Not all family violence is the same. There are different patterns that arise from different societal roots and interpersonal dynamics. We need to make distinctions in order to maximize our effectiveness in becoming more peaceful in our private lives.

Kolbo, Jerome R.; Eleanor H. Blakely, and David Engleman. (1996). Children Who Witness Domestic Violence: A Review of Empirical Literature. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 2(2), 281-293.

PURPOSE: This article is a review of literature that examines how witnessing domestic violence initially affects children's functioning.

METHODS: (review of literature)

RESULTS/CONCLUSIONS: Children who witness domestic violence are at an increased risk for maladaptation, and manifest a wide variety of problems, affecting different domains and varying in severity.

DISCUSSION/INTERVENTION/PREVENTION: A linear social learning model does not appear adequate for explaining the relationship between children's witnessing of domestic violence and their subsequent development, due to variables that might mediate this relationship. The suggestion is given to examine the factors which protect children from adverse life events, by examining the children who are not exhibiting or reporting developmental problems.

MacEwen, Karyl E. and Julian Barling. (1988). Multiple Stressors, Violence in the Family of Origin and Marital Aggression: A Longitudinal Investigation. Journal of Family Violence, 3(1), 73-87.

PURPOSE: This study assesses an aspect of social learning theory, proposing that violence in one's family of origin predisposes one to react to stress by aggression against one's spouse. Violence in the family of origin was assessed prior to the wedding.

METHODS: Two hundred seventy-five couples completed questionnaires measuring multiple types of stress in life and work. Measures of marital aggression were taken 6 months and 18 months following their wedding.

RESULTS/CONCLUSIONS: Using multiple regression, findings showed that women's marital aggression a year later could be predicted by stress. This was not so for men and no effects were seen for violence in the family of origin, probably due to the inadequacies of the measurement. Prior marital aggression was the best predictor of later marital aggression.

Mathias, Jane L, Peter Mertin and Anne Murray. (1995). The Psychological Functioning of Children from Backgrounds of Domestic Violence. Australian Psychologist, 30(1), 47-56.

McDonald, Renee & Ernest N. Jouriles (1991). Marital Aggression and Child Behavior Problems: Research Findings, Mechanisms, and Intervention Strategies. The Behavior Therapist, 189-192.

PURPOSE: This review provides clinicians and researchers with an understanding of the mental health needs of children from maritally aggressive families. It summarizes existing research and hypothesizes how children may be negatively influenced by marital aggression. Suggests areas for assessment and potential intervention.

LIT. REVIEW/THEMES: Children of mothers in shelters are at risk for developing behavior problems (Jaffe, Wolfe, Wilson, & Zak, 1986a, 1986b, 1985, 1986). Problems include externalizing disorders (aggression, oppositional behavior, delinquency) and internalizing disorders (depression, anxiety, problems in social competence, difficulty in making friends). Cites social learning theory to explain why children's exposure to marital conflict may lead to child behavior problems. Suggests that exposure to marital aggression increases children's level of emotional arousal which increases the likelihood of aggressive behavior in children and reduces children's tolerance of frustration, or sensitizes children to interpret other events in a negative light.

METHODS: Summary only.

RESULTS/CONCLUSIONS: Marital aggression is often accompanied by social isolation (Stark & Flitcraft, 1988) hence good social support systems can provide parents with resources such as emotional support, protection from effects of stress, modeling, information and feedback, reinforcement.

Hypotheses:

1) Children may behave in an antisocial manner because they have not learned alternative prosocial responses.

2) Families with marital aggression problems generally have multiple stressors such as socioeconomic disadvantage, frequent moves, maternal stress, paternal alcoholism, maternal physical and mental health problems.

DISCUSSION/INTERVENTION/PREVENTION: Prevention strategies include:

1) Make changes in the way parents interact with each other.

2) Conflict resolution strategies and problem solving skills.

3) Teaching safety skills (when in the middle of a violent situation).

4) Help children develop a source of social support (siblings and other relatives, therapy support groups, church, Scouts, etc).

McHenry, Patrick C.; Teresa W. Julian, and Stephen M. Gavazzi. (1995). Toward a Biopsychosocial Model of Domestic Violence. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 57, 307-320.

PURPOSE: A sample of 102 married men were interviewed and physically assessed in an attempt to develop a biopsychosocial model of male domestic violence. A biopsychosocial systems model highlights the interactive nature of biological, psychological and social phenomena regarding health and illness.

METHODS: Methods included face-to-face interview, a questionnaire and the drawing of a blood sample from the male. The Conflict/Tactics Scale was used to indicate the extent and level of violence of males toward marital partners. The Life Experiences Survey is a self-report measure of events that have occurred in the past year. The Autonomy and Relatedness Inventory assesses the quality of the male's relationship with his female partner. The Inventory of Social Supportive Behaviors assesses social support or the frequency with which male subjects reported receiving specific types of support. The Psychiatric Symptoms Checklist assesses psycho pathology in psychiatric and medical outpatients.

RESULTS/CONCLUSIONS: Tobit analysis of male violence indicated that males with greater alcohol use and higher levels of testosterone express violence against their female partner more frequently. Males with lower family incomes and lower relationship quality also express violence toward their female partner more frequently. When examined separately each conceptual domain (physical, psychological, social) was significantly related to the dependent measure, domestic violence, but in the full biopsychosocial model only the biological and social domains were statistically significant. Data indicate that the social cluster of variables constitutes the best set of predictors, providing support for a life events perspective on domestic violence.

Mertin, Peter. (1995). A Follow-Up Study of Children from Domestic Violence. Australian Journal of Family Law.

PURPOSE: This study examined changes in the emotional and behavioral functioning of 34 children from backgrounds of domestic violence, over a 10 month period.

METHODS: An assessment battery was given to these children consisting of the Adapted Conflict Tactics Scale, the Child Behavior Checklist, the Revised Children's Manifest Anxiety Scale, the Children's Depression Inventory and a Children's questionnaire on feelings about their current situation.

RESULTS/CONCLUSIONS: The results of assessment at time 1 are consistent with previous studies, showing a high incidence of behavioral and emotional problems in the children. At time 2 there was a significant reduction in all scores with the majority of children being within the normal range with respect to behavioral and emotional functioning. However 38% of children still registered elevated Total Problem scores on the CBCL with 15% being in the depressed range of the CDI.

DISCUSSION/INTERVENTION/PREVENTION: The relationship between the mother's recovery and that of her children is a feature not explored in this study but which is thought to be a factor. It is recommended that the outcomes of the sample be compared to those of a group of children who are required to continue contact with their fathers.

Murphy, Christopher M., & K. Daniel O'Leary. (1989). Psychological Aggression Predicts Physical Aggression in Early Marriage. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 57(5), 579-582.

PURPOSE: This study assessed psychological aggression by self and partner, physical aggression by partner and marital dissatisfaction as longitudinal predictors of first instances of physical aggression during marriage.

LIT. REVIEW/THEMES: Research has indicated that physical aggression is an eventual outcome or by-product of a coercive system (psychological aggression). Psychological aggression refers to both coercive verbal behaviors such as insulting or swearing at a partner, and coercive nonverbal behaviors such as slamming doors or smashing objects. Both terms, physical and psychological aggression, are meant to convey the form of the behavior expressed rather than the consequences produced or intended.

METHODS: Subjects who were not physically aggressive at a premarital assessment were selected from a sample of 393 engaged couples. They participated in three assessments over the first 30 months of marriage. The sample was 99% white.

RESULTS/CONCLUSIONS: Through correlation analysis, psychological aggression generally proved to be a significant predictor of physical aggression. In addition, psychological aggression by their partners also predicted first instances of physical aggression. By contrast, marital dissatisfaction in general did not predict first instances of physical aggression and prior physical aggression by the partner was only inconsistently predictive. General dissatisfaction early in marriage seems to be a consequence of angry and aggressive responses to marital conflict which then establishes a context for further conflict and repeated violence.

DISCUSSION/INTERVENTION/PREVENTION: There is a need for research designed to prevent marital violence through decreasing psychological aggression and increasing problem-solving skills. The general manner of reacting to conflict rather than general dissatisfaction with a relationship is critical in understanding the development of physical aggression.

Neidig, Peter H; Dale H. Friedman & Barbara S. Collins. (1986). Attitudinal Characteristics of Males Who Have Engaged in Spouse Abuse. Journal of Family Violence, 1(3), 223-233.

PURPOSE: This study investigated several of the attitudinal characteristics which are frequently attributed to abusive males. These characteristics include: self-esteem the extent to which a person believes himself to be capable, significant, successful and worthy;- attitudes toward others abusive individuals are characterized as isolated from others and thus dependent on their wives to meet all their emotional needs, and untrusting, hostile and critical of the world; attitudes toward women, = adhering rigidly to traditional sex role stereotypes; empathy willingness to put oneself in another's place and midify behavior as a result; attitudes of dogmatism and rigidity fervor and rigidity with which attitudes are held, traditional, authoritarian or patriarchal.

LIT. REVIEW/THEMES: Methodological limitations cited in the literature of Martin (1976), Walker (1979), Ganley & Harris (1978), Elbow (1977), Saunders (1982) may be producing the "woozle effect." This is said to occur when statements are repeated by so many authors that the find is considered a 'law' without additional supporting data having been collected.

METHODS: Male military personnel (N= 43 & N=76) who had engaged in at least one serious episode of inter spousal violence in the previous 6 months were administered several inventories: The Coopersmith Self-esteem Inventory; The Generalized Expectations of Others Questionnaire; a short form of The Attitudes Toward Women Scale and The Mehrabian and Epstein Empathy Scale; and The Rokeach Dogmatism Scale and the Revised Authoritarianism Scale. Three control groups (N=40, N=34, N=65) that reported no inter spousal physical violence were also administered the tests.

RESULTS/CONCLUSIONS: Tests were performed using the overall mean scores for the experimental and control groups for each measure. Statistically significant differences were found only on two measures: self-esteem (t(73)=4.42, p <0.01), and item #2 ['In your day-to-day dealing with other people, what percent of the time do you expect others might try to take advantage of you?'] The results suggest that the attitudinal variables investigated do not generally differentiate abusive from non abusive males despite the low statistically significant differences found on these two items.

DISCUSSION/INTERVENTION/PREVENTION: It may be that the failure of this study to confirm clinical impressions reported in other literature may be due to sampling bias. When selecting an experimental sample it is difficult to get cooperation of abusive males to participate in such a study. Also, there may be clinically relevant differences within the abusive population independent of the variables commonly used to select experimental samples (severity or frequency of abusive behavior.)

Pan, Helen S., Peter H. Neidig, & K. Daniel O'Leary. (1994). Predicting Mild and Severe Husband-to-Wife Physical Aggression. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 62(5), 975-981.

PURPOSE: This is a research study in which nonordered multinomial logistic models were used to estimate the odds of mild and severe husband-to-wife physical aggression in 11,870 white men.

LIT. REVIEW/THEMES: Research stances to take when determining risk factors for interspousal aggression include: FEMINIST (Bograd, 1988; Dobash & Dobash, 1978); SOCIOCULTURAL (Straus et al, 1980); PSYCHOLOGICAL (O'Leary & Vivian, 1990); SOCIAL LEARNING (O'Leary, Malone & Tyree, 1994); PERSONALITY (Hastings & Hamberger, 1988); INTERACTIONIST (Dutton, 1988).

METHODS: Respondents were 11,870 white males on 38 Army bases in the United States. Several measures were administered: Modified Conflict Tactics Scale, Dyadic Adjustment Scale, Moos's Work Environment Scale, a depressive symptomatoloty scale, a home concern measure and a general job stress scale. Results were analyzed by Statistical Software Tools package SST 386, version 2.0.

RESULTS/CONCLUSIONS: Compared with men who were NOT physically aggressive al all, men who used mild or severe physical aggression were younger, made less money, reported a drinking problem, were more discordant with their spouses, had concerns about their spouse's adjustment, and complained of depressive symptoms. Compared with physically NON AGGRESSIVE men, more severely aggressive men also self-reported a drug problem in the family. Severely physically aggressive men had lower incomes, more marriage discord, and more depressive symptoms than mildly aggressive men, and severely aggressive men were more likely to report alcohol and drug problems.

DISCUSSION/INTERVENTION/PREVENTION: Findings suggest that treatment and prevention should stress the improvement of marital relations. Strategies that address interpersonal psychological variables are likely to help deter physical violence. Social policies focusing on reducing poverty and minimizing alcohol and drug abuse should also be considered.

Rynerson, Barbara C.; Fishel, Anne H. (1993). Domestic violence prevention training: Participant characteristics and treatment outcomes. Journal of Family Violence, 8(3), 253-266.

PURPOSE: This was a secondary data analysis in which the researcher used intake assessments to identify family background, childhood memories and experiences with violence, substance abuse, male violence histories, and social interactions among participants who attended a Domestic Violence Prevention Training Program (DVPT). The DVPT was designed to help both abuser and victim stop violence in the home and become aware of alternatives to violence.

LIT. REVIEW/THEMES: Most domestic violence and treatment strategies have been based on two disparate approaches: compassion and control. Community systems of intervention are consistent with this dual approach, based on restoration of the personal integrity of both victim and perpetrator.

METHODS: Using Neidig and Friedman's (1984) treatment program for spouse abusing couples, the program consisted of eight two-hour weekly didactic and role-playing sessions emphasizing skill building, stress management, relationship enhancement and problem-solving strategies, plus between-session homework assignments.

RESULTS: The findings are similar to that in other family violence research. The couples who were raised by abusive parents were tolerant of harsh punishments and subsequently were themselves abused. Although the participants perceived some change in locus of control the evidence that they controlled their own destinies was not convincing.

Shalala, Donna E. (1995). Domestic Violence is Not a Private Matter: A Comprehensive Approach to Preventing and Ending the Violence. UWLA Law Review. 26, 29-36.

PURPOSE: This is a commentary which addresses the domestic violence issues of comprehensive identification, prevention and treatment programs for women victims.

LIT. REVIEW/THEMES: Federal legislation is cited. The Violence Against Women Act authorizes funds to train prosecutors and health and social service professionals, to increase funding to battered women's shelters, and to toughen criminal and civil sanctions against attackers and the perpetrators of sex crimes. The Family Preservation and Support Program provides funds to work with families at risk and in crisis. Increased funding to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention is for a new initiative to research the prevalence of domestic violence, and for new public prevention and awareness campaigns.

METHODS: Summary of existing practices.

RESULTS/CONCLUSIONS: Recommendations given:

1) Every battered woman who receives medical care for injuries must also be referred for help in obtaining protection and counseling.

2) Courts must not only punish offenders but make sure victims have the legal right to keep assailants away from themselves and their property.

3) Educators should develop and implement conflict resolution curricula.

4) Children should understand that their actions have consequences and injuring a sibling is the same as hurting someone outside the home.

5) When intervening in a domestic violence situation police should inform the individuals about resources in the community and warn that a physical assault could lead to arrest and prosecution. They should follow-up by monitoring the home as a possible risk for domestic violence.

PURPOSE: This study used The Children's Depression Inventory, Child Behavior Checklist and Youth Self-Report to assess the effects of various types of domestic violence on children's behavior problems and depression, of 110 Israeli children from lower-class families, identified through social service records.

METHODS: One hundred ten children, 8-12 years old, were divided into four groups (three who had experienced some form of chronic domestic violence and one control group) and given the Children's Depression Inventory, Child Behavior Checklist and Youth Self-Report with parents also completing these measures, to assess the effects of various types of domestic violence on children's behavior problems and depression.

RESULTS/CONCLUSIONS: Because different informants (mom vs. dad) had different perspectives on the children's behavior, results were reported in specific 'qualifying' instances, i.e. the domestic violence had effects on child development that varied in magnitude and nature depending on the type of domestic violence and who reported the information about the child's adjustment.

Waltz, Catherine L. (1995). Domestic Violence Training: An Annotated Bibliography. Journal of Family Violence, 10(4), 425-431.

PURPOSE: This is a review of literature concerning training related to the abuse of women.

LIT. REVIEW/THEMES: This research supports the belief that training is needed to provide therapists with 1) assessment methods to better evaluate situations of violence, 2) a theoretical orientation to allocate responsibility for violence to the batterer, 3) intervention methods to address the safety of victims.

METHODS: Research studies, treatment programs and training manuals were examined to determine processes of preparing individuals to work with women who have been battered or with men who batter.

RESULTS/CONCLUSIONS: Most of the training literature reported on focuses on identification of those affected by violence. The author also suggests that effective assessment and intervention strategies should be taught and programs should include training that helps students know the influence of their personal values on the intervention strategies and skills they will use. Other suggestions included conducting empirical evaluations of training programs with regard to long term effects of the training, and the immediate acquisition of knowledge and skills. This literature briefly presents topics to be used in training but does not prescribe training or remediation methods.

Dating Violence Annotated Bibliography

Carlson, Bonnie E. (1996). Dating Violence: Student Beliefs About Consequences. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 11(1), 3-18.

PURPOSE: The purpose of this research was to determine undergraduate and graduate student beliefs about dating violence and abuse, by reading 15 vignettes and then rating how violent and abusive the depicted incident was, what was likely to happen to the relationship in the future and what should happen following the incident.

LIT. REVIEW/THEMES: The literature reports two major themes about dating violence: 1) high school and dating relationships continue following the occurrence of a violent incident (Comins, 1984; Makepeace, 1981; Matthew, 1984) and 2) factors predicting the continuation of a relationship following violence include lack of injury and extent of the couple's commitment to each other (Makepeace, 1989; Legg, Olday & Wesley, 1984).

METHODS: Based on a review of literature six hypotheses were generated for testing:

1) A majority of respondents will predict that the relationship will improve following a violent incident.

2) Respondents will predict that a relationship will end following violence if serious injury occurs.

3) Calling an incident abusive will make it likely the negative outcomes will be predicted and counseling will be recommended.

4) Counseling will be less often recommended than talking to friends or calling the police.

5) Formal help will be recommended more in response to male-initiated aggression.

6) Severity of violence will be associated with greater likelihood of recommending formal help-seeking intervention.

A random sample of 298 undergrad and grad students (67% female) were given three measures: a questionnaire of 15 vignettes, a modified portion of the Conflict Tactics Scales, that measures whether respondents had used violence toward a partner or had been a recipient of violence, and a series of demographic questions.

RESULTS/CONCLUSIONS:

Hypothesis #1, that most students would predict relationship improvement, WAS NOT SUPPORTED.

Hypothesis #2, that students are more likely to predict a relationship will end if serious injury occurs, WAS SUPPORTED.

Hypothesis #3, that labeling an incident as violent or abusive increases the likelihood of predicting negative outcomes, WAS SUPPORTED.

Hypothesis #4, WAS NOT SUPPORTED as counseling was recommended as often as talking to friends or contacting the police.

Hypothesis #5, that formal help seeking would be more likely recommended in relation to male-initiated aggression, WAS SUPPORTED.

Hypothesis #6, predicting recommendations of counseling in relation to more serious acts of violence WAS SUPPORTED.

DISCUSSION/INTERVENTION/PREVENTION: Analysis of the CTS results and demographic questions revealed a discrepancy between what respondents say should happen versus self-reports in the literature of what does happen. Another discrepancy pertains to the students' recommendation that both victims and perpetrators seek counseling; students did not follow their own advice on this matter. These discrepancies suggest that responses are biased toward what students believe the researchers want to hear. Therefore, implications for intervention include:

Definitions about what constitutes violence need to be broadened to include not only severe acts but antecedents (pushing, slapping, threats) to severe acts.

Discussion of gender roles and power and control issues in intimate relationships.

Discussion of the pros and cons of continuing a relationship in which violence occurs.

DeKeseredy, Walter S. & Katharine Kelly. (1995) Sexual Abuse in Canadian University and College Dating Relationships: The Contribution of Male Peer Support. Journal of Family Violence, 10(1), 41-53.

PURPOSE: This study tested three hypotheses from a theoretical model which attempts to explain the relationship between male peer group dynamics and sexual assault in dating relationships.

LIT. REVIEW/THEMES: Research shows that many women are sexually assaulted by their college dating partners (DeKeseredy and Kelly, 1993); Koss et al, 1987). Furthermore, male students who have physically and sexually abusive friends and/or belong to sexist male networks (fraternities, athletic clubs) are more likely to sexually abuse women (Bohmer & Parrot, 1993; Ehrhart & Sandler, 1985; Kanin, 1967, 1984, 1985). DeKeseredy's model, below, shows that stress factors in dating relationships and male peer support influence the probability of sexual abuse.

Dating Male Peer Sexual Relationship________ Stress________ Support__________ Abuse

METHODS: A total of 1307 Canadian male college and university students (median age 21 years) voluntarily took a self-report questionnaire in 95 undergraduate classes across the country to test the following hypotheses based on DeKeseredy's model:

1) The more serious the dating relationship, the more likely men are to sexually abuse their dating partners.

2) The more serious the dating relationship, the more male peer support men will receive.

3) The more male peer support men receive, the more likely they are to sexually abuse their dating partners.

The incidence of sexual abuse was measured using a version of Koss' Sexual Experiences Survey (SES) which indicates four types of victimization: unwanted sexual contact, sexual coercion, attempted rape, rape. Three types of male peer support were measured: 1) guidance and advice that influence men to sexually, physically and psychologically assault their dating partners; 2) attachments to abusive male peers; 3) peer pressure to have sex. Data were analyzed using correlation and regression analysis.

RESULTS/CONCLUSIONS: Informational support (#1 above) and attachment to abusive peers (#2 above) are associated with sexual abuse. Informational support is strongly associated with attachment to abusive peers (.45) and weakly associated with peer pressure to have sex (.25). Attachment to abusive peers is weakly associated with peer pressure to have sex (.18). The results support U.S. research which shows that male peer support is an important predictor of sexual victimization in college dating relationships. They only partially support DeKeseredy's theoretical model because the study excluded a potentially relevant variable, that of stress in dating life, from the analysis.

DISCUSSION/INTERVENTION/PREVENTION: In further research with this model it is suggest that two additional situational factors be considered: 1) membership in athletic clubs and fraternities, and 2) contexts of alcohol consumption. Some discussion of the literature regarding these was included in the article.

Foo, Louise & Gayla Margolin. (1995). A Multivariate Investigation of Dating Aggression. Journal of Family Violence, 10(4), 351-376.

PURPOSE: This study takes a multivariate approach toward understanding dating aggression. Specific variables examined are: 1) exposure to aggression in the family of origin; 2) attitudes justifying dating aggression; 3) child-to-parent aggression; 4) child sexual abuse; 5) violent sexual victimization; 6) alcohol use; 7) socioeconomic status.

METHODS: Participants were 111 male and 179 female undergraduates who reported on their own aggressive behaviors directed toward dating partners. Questionnaires were used to collect demographic characteristics, experience of aggression in the family of origin and dating relationships, attitudes toward intimate aggression, alcohol consumption, child sexual abuse, prior violent sexual victimization and socioeconomic status.

RESULTS/CONCLUSIONS: Many correlations were run and results support a multivariate model of dating aggression, noting that the determining factors of dating violence appear to be different for males and for females. Both males and females hold the attitude that dating aggression can be justified, when faced with humiliation by one's dating partner, and by prior violent sexual victimization. However, witnessing interparental violence can predict males' dating aggression but not female's dating aggression. The attitude that aggression is justified in circumstances of self-defense is not associated with actual dating aggression.

DISCUSSION/INTERVENTION/PREVENTION: Research is needed to make connections among risk factors, the immediate presenting circumstances, and the attitudes perceptions and emotions accompanying specific incidents of dating aggression. It is important to examine specific circumstances under which males and females justify dating aggression, and how such attitudes condoning aggression affect actual behaviors.

Gray, Heather M.; & Fosher, Vangie. (1997). Adolescent dating violence: Differences between one-sided and mutually violent profiles. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 2(1), 126-141.

PURPOSE: This study investigates differences in three dating profiles: victims of violence, perpetrators of violence, individuals in mutually violent relationships (both V and P). It compares prevalence, amount and severity of violence; determines if characteristics such as duration, level of commitment and effects of violence are associated with each profile; determines if past experiences with date violence, violence at home and acceptance of date violence are associated with dating violence profile. Hypothesis that- 'individuals in mutually violent relationships will experience and perpetrate more violence and more severe types of violence than individuals in one-sided violent relationships and that within mutually violent relationships, the amount of violence initiated will equal the amount of violence sustained.

LIT. REVIEW/THEMES: Most prevalent theme is that of mutually violent (physical force used to hurt another person) dating relationships: Billingham, 1987; Bookwala et al., 1992; Cate et al., 1982; Pederson & Thomas, 1992; Roscoe & Kelsey, 1986. Social learning theory (Bandura) explains how violent behavior is learned in interaction.

METHODS: Subjects were 77 (50% of an initial sample) 6th - 12th grade students who reported involvement with dating violence in their most recent or current dating relationship: 62% white, 35% black, 1 Hispanic, 1 Asian. Procedures were a self-report questionnaire (completed in one school period) measuring dating violence and potential correlates of dating violence (see Purpose). Active parental consent was required. Analysis was via unpaired t-tests and analysis of variance to compare the means for those involved in one-sided violent relationships (victims M=3.68, SD=1.59; vs. mutual M=17.38, SD=32.02 and, perpetrators M=4.20, SD=4.12 vs. mutual M=16.22, SD=25.41) and those involved in mutally violent relationships. Tukey's Studentized Range test compared the means; Fisher's Exact test compared categorical data by violence profile. Small sample size limits the statistical power although results (above) were statistically significant at p.004 and p=.002 respectively.

RESULTS/CONCLUSIONS: Of the 77 adolescents, 14.3% were victims of violence, 19.5% were perpetrators, and 66.2% were both victims and perpetrators of violence in their dating relationships. None of the relationship characteristics (# of dates, commitment, etc.) were associated with the dating violence profile. DISCUSSION/INTERVENTION/PREVENTION: Results were as hypothesized. Suggest that dating violence curricula change focus to address three profiles, and include discussions about mutually violent relationships and consequences; role-play should depict interactive violence between boys and girls and portray how one partner may learn to use violence from the other partner.

LeJeune, Chad and Victoria Follette. (1994). Taking Responsibility: Sex Differences in Reporting Dating Violence. Journal of Interpersonal Violence 9(1), 133-140.

PURPOSE: Male (58%) and female (42%) college students were surveyed to find out which partner, in a dating relationship, initiates violent acts, and what the frequency is of inflicting/sustaining the violent acts.

LIT. REVIEW/THEMES: Several studies have found that the rates of violence are similar across gender (Follette, 1992; Riggs et al., 1990; Straus, Gelles & Steinmetz, 1980). In addition, Makepeace (1981) found that one in five students had experienced at least one instance of abuse in a dating relationship.

METHODS: A three-part survey was given to 465 college sophomore and junior students. The first part consisted of demographic questions. The second part was a series of questions about who initiates the violence, whose fault it is, and the prevalence of drug or alcohol use during violent situations. The third part of the survey was the Conflict Tactics Scale.

RESULTS/CONCLUSIONS: The findings demonstrated some inconsistencies depending upon whether the respondent was a male or female:

1) 42% of the females said that they usually initiate the violence.

2) 14% of the males said that they usually initiate the violence.

3) Both males and females attributed higher levels of violence (severity) to their partners rather than to themselves.

4) Approximately 32% of the males and females reported alcohol or drug use when the violence occurred.

DISCUSSION/INTERVENTION/PREVENTION: According to female reports the number of males and females initiating violent acts was about equal. According to male reports, however, females are more likely to initiate violence, and the violence they initiate will be considerably greater than if a male initiates it. The discrepency suggests that females are more likely than males to take responsibility for initiating the violence. Under this pattern of blame, patterns of violence won't change. Prevention programs should therefore encourage females and males both to take responsibility for their own actions and take LESS responsibility for the actions of others.

PURPOSE: This study examined the prevalence of premarital aggression in a community sample of 625 couples participating in a longitudinal study of marital functioning and alcohol use.

LIT. REVIEW/THEMES: Violence during the dating and courtships phases of a relationship is prevalent (Makepeace, 1981; Arias et al., 1987; Laner, 1983; Roscoe and Callahan, 1985). Most of these studies have been on college student populations.

METHODS: Subjects were 625 newlywed couples, entering their first marriage, drawn from the general population. Whites comprised 72% (males) and 73% (females). A modified version of the Conflict Tactics Scale (CTS) measured the prevalence of violence among the couples. Eight items assessed occurrence and frequency of behaviors engaged in during an argument: 1) discuss issue calmly, 2) get information to back up your side of things, 3) bring in someone to help settle the issue, 4) insult or swear, 5) sulk or refuse to talk, 6) do or say something to spite, 7) push, grab or shove, 8) slap. THIS STUDY DID NOT ASSESS SEVERE AGGRESSION OR WIFE-TO-HUSBAND AGGRESSION.

RESULTS/CONCLUSIONS: Based on the results of the CTS, 27% of husbands and 28% of wives indicated that either mild or moderate marital violence had occurred in their relationship. Premarital aggression was significantly higher among younger couples than older couples (x = 14.19, df =4, p<.01 for husbands). Working and middle-class husbands' rates for moderate aggression were twice that of upper-class husbands. There were higher rates for unemployed husbands and wives and higher rates of aggression in Fundamentalist Protestant denominations. Wives who had children were more likely to have experienced aggression. Wives who cohabited reported being victims of moderate premarital violence at a rate of more than twice that of wives who did not cohabit. Rates were considerably higher among black couples compared to white couples. Rate of premarital aggression (husband-to-wife) was 36% overall.

Nightingale, Heath; & Morisette, Patrick. (1993). Dating violence: Attitudes, myths, and peer programs. Social Work in Education, 15(4), 225-232.

PURPOSE: Article is a description of a preventive educational program for high school students/faculty addressing the issue of dating violence by focusing on attitudes and myths that surround dating activity with the purpose of increasing students' attention and involvement during presentations and discussions.

METHODS: Peer networks/peers were used as models for prevention. The program addressed issues pertaining to dating and emphasis was on maintaining audience attention and inviting participation. Discussion and experiential exercises were used to address values, attitudes and dynamics that underlie relationships. School counselors organize the presentations and provide historical information

RESULTS/CONCLUSIONS: This program was designed to get the attention of high school students and faculty through active participation within an intensive format. Students could delve into subject matter than directly affects their immediate and future intimate lives.

Pape, Karen T.; & Arias, Illeana. (1995). Control, coping, and victimization in dating relationships. Violence and Victims, 10,(1), 43-54.

PURPOSE: This study examined the role of perceived control and coping in mediating relationships between violent and nonviolent negative relationship events and women's experience of distress.

THEMES/LIT. REVIEW: Women who believe they can control violence may not understand the dangerousness and uncontrollability of violence, and thus not seek help to end the violence or terminate the abusive relationship. Primary literature cited included studies by Makepeace, 1986; Lazarus & Folkman, 1984; Lo & Sporakowski, 1989.

METHODS: Sample was 122 female students at the University of Georgia, 48 of whom were victims of relationship violence and 74 of whom were non victims. The 'average' student was white, 19 years old, sophomore, no specific religious affiliation. Measures were the Conflict Tactics Scale, an 18-item self-report assessing ways (reasoning, verbal aggression and violence) partners resolve conflict. Symptom Checklist is a 90 item measure for psychological symptomatoloty (ex. obsessive-compulsive, anxiety, anxiety, etc). Ways of Coping Checklist is a 66-item self-report to assess a range of coping strategies (ex. 'I make a plan of action and follow it.')

RESULTS/CONCLUSIONS: Many correlations found. In general, victims were not more distressed than non victims and level of distress was not related to level of violence experienced. Women's conceptualizationòs of the violence may influence their experience of distress. Although this data was not formally requested, 65% of victims reported that their partners were violent in response to threats to the relationship, ie. jealousy, sexual infidelity, etc. Suggests that women involved in violent dating relationships conceptualize the violence as a provoked sign of love, or relationship commitment, rather than as a negative relationship event.

IMPLICATIONS: Mental health professions can help women cope with the distress associated with making decisions, with relationship termination, and help establish lifestyles that promote physical and psychological health.

Riggs, David S. (1993). Relationship Problems and Dating Aggression. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 8(1), 18-35.

PURPOSE: This study investigated the association between problems in dating relationships and the occurrence of physical aggression in the relationships.

LIT. REVIEW/THEMES: About 25% of college student relationships could be classified as aggressive according to research by Arias, Samios & O'Leary, 1987; and Riggs, O'Leary, & Breslin, 1990. Both men and women report being the aggressor.

METHODS: A total of 667 college students completed the Conflict Tactics Scale (CTS) and the Relationship Problem Scale (RPS). A factor analysis of RPS showed problem areas to be jealousy, fighting, interference of friends, lack of time together, breakdown of relationship, outside problems. Victims of aggression and the aggressors reported more problems, and the problems and severity of jealousy, fighting, breakdown of the relationship and interference of friends were reported more often by aggressive individuals.

RESULTS/CONCLUSIONS: Aggressive dating relationships are characterized by greater frequency and more severe problems and by specific problems: jealousy, the interference of people outside the relationship such as friends and parents, and more fighting. Aggressive couples experience more general conflict and it is possible that this conflict results from the inability of these couples to resolve even minor problems.

DISCUSSION/INTERVENTION/PREVENTION: Recommendations include focusing on general skills training in the areas of negotiation and compromise in addition to addressing the specific problems faced by the couple.

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Literature Rewiew on Pre-Marriage Education Programs

Bibliographies

Issues and Program Designs

Premarital Education Programs

Discussions of specific components and concerns related to formal and non-formal marriage education. Proposals for prevention and competence-building programs or curriculum or informational materials.

Bader, Edward; & Sinclair, Carole. (1983). The critical first year of marriage. In D.R. Mace. (Ed.) Prevention in family services: Approaches to family wellness, pp. 77-86, Beverly Hills: Sage.

Bagarozzi, Dennis A.; & Bagarozzi, Judith I. (1982). A theoretically derived model of premarital intervention: The building of a family system. Clinical Social Work Journal, 10, 52-64.

Ball, J. D.; & Henning, Lawrence H. (1981). Rational suggestions for pre-marital counseling. Journal of Marital and Family Therapy, 7, (1), 69-73.

Biegert, J. (1976). Premarital counseling. The Christian Ministry Magazine, May, 5-6.

Brajsa, Pavao. (1981). Relation psychodynamics of premarital and marital counselling. Sociajalna Psihijatrija, 9, (3), 225-244.

Brix, James A. (1984). A plan for premarital counseling. Your Church, 30, (2), 26-33.

Buckner, Lynn P.; & Salts, Connie J. (1985). Premarital assessment program. Family Relations, 34, (4), 513-520.

Campion, Michael A. (1982). Premarital sexual counseling: Suggestions for ministers and other counselors. Journal of Psychology and Christianity, 1, (4), 53-60.

Cevan, Jan. (1983). Preparedness for marriage of minor engaged couples: Experiences from a marital and premarital counselling centre. Psychologia a Patosychologia Dietata, 18, (2), 135-149.

Chesser, Barbara J. (1980). Analysis of wedding rituals: An attempt to make weddings more meaningful. Family Relations, 29, (2), 67-71.

Clinebell, Howard J. (1977). Premarital counseling: Religious dimensions. In W.J. Hiebert & R.F. Stahmann (Eds.). Klemer's counseling in marital and sexual problems: A clinician's handbook. Second edition, pp. 315-329, Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins Company.

Dominian, Jack. (1984). Make or break: An introduction to marital counseling. London: SPCK.

Freeman, Donald R. (1982). Preparation for marriage. In D.R. Freeman. (Ed.). Marital crisis and short-term counseling: A casebook. New York: The Free Press, pp. 236-244.

Glendening, Susan E.; & Wilson, A. John III. (1972). Experiments in group premarital counseling. Social Casework, 53, (9), 551-562. *PMP/PROG (Social Worker/Psychoanalyst & Pastoral Counselor)

Guldner, Claude A. (1977). Marriage preparation and marriage enrichment: The preventive approach. Pastoral Psychology, 25, (4), 248-259.

Hargasova, Marta; & Gajdosova, Jaroslava. (1981). Pre-marital counselling programs for undergraduates. Psychologia a Patopsychologia Dietata, 16, (3), 275-286.

Hinkle, John E.; & Moore, Marvin. (1971). A student couples program. The Family Coordinator, 20, (1), 153-158.

Holoubek, A.; Holoubek, J. (1973). Pre-marriage counseling. Journal of the Arkansas Medical Society, 70, 176-178.

Holoubek, A.; Holoubek, J.; Bergeron, J.; Bacarisse, A.; Inaina, J.; Sanders, A.; & Baker, D. (1974). Marriage preparation: An interdisciplinary approach. Journal of the Louisiana State Medical Society, 126, 313-316.

Huber, Charles H. (1987). Premarital counseling using "Time for a Better Marriage." Individual Psychology, 43, (2), 202-205.

Keith, D.V. (1981). Involving the family in premarital counseling. In A.S. Gurman (Ed). Questions and Answers in the Practice of Family Therapy, Volume 1, pp. 365-368, New York: Brunner/Mazel.

Knox, David; & Knox, Frances. (1974). Preparation for marriage beyond the classroom. Journal of Family Counseling, 2 (2), 16-22.

Knox, David; & Patrick, Junior A. (1971). You are what you do: A new marriage approach in preparation for marriage. The Family Coordinator, 20, (1), 109-114.

L'Abate, Luciano; & Lantz, John. (1990). Marriage preparation. In L'Labate. Building family competence: Primary and secondary prevention strategies. Newbury Park, CA: Sage., pp. 176-186.

Lawler, Michael. (1995). Doing marriage preparation right. America, 173, (21), 12-14.

Levine, Laurie B., & Busby, Dean. (1993). Co-creating shared realities with couples. Contemporary Family Therapy, 15, (5), 405-421.

Mace, David R. (1985). Getting ready for marriage. Revised edition, Nashville: Abingdon.

Mace, David R. (1983). Training families to deal creatively with conflict. In D.R. Mace. (Ed.). Prevention in family services: approaches to family wellness, pp. 190-200, Beverly Hills: Sage.

Markman, Howard J.; Floyd, F.J.; Stanley; S.M.; & Lewis, H.C. (1986). Prevention. In N.S. Jacobsen & A.S. Gurman (Eds.). Clinical handbook of marital therapy. New York: Guilford Press. 173-195.

Markman, Howard J.; Floyd, Frank J.; Stanley, Scott M.; & Jamieson, Karen. (1984). A cognitive-behavioral program for the prevention of marital and family distress: Issues in program development and delivery. In K. Hahlweg & N.S. Jacobsen. (Eds.). Marital Interaction: Analysis and Modification, pp. 396-428, New York: Guilford Press.

Markman, Howard J.; & Halweg, Kurt. (1993). The prediction and prevention of marital distress: An international perspective. Clinical Psychology Review, 13, (1), 29-43.

Martin, Don; & Medler, Byron. (1980). Using contracts in premarital counseling. Texas Personnel and Guidance Journal, 8, (2), 115-118.

Martin, Don; Gawinski, Barbara; & Medler, Byron. (1982). Premarital counseling using group process. Journal of Specialists in Group Work, 7, (2), 102-108.

Martin, Don; Gawinski, Barbara; Medler, Byron; & Eddy, John. (1981). A group premarital counseling workshop for high school couples. The School Counselor, 28, (3), 223-226.

McKeon, Margie A.; McKeon, David M.; & Bucher, Kevin D. (1980). A new perspective: Establishing a satellite center for marriage and family development in married housing. Southern College Personnel Association Journal, 3, (1), 35-41.

Meadows, M.; & Taplin, J. (1973). Premarital counseling with college students: A promising triad. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 17, 516-518.

Miller, Sherrod; Wackman, Daniel B.; & Nunnally, Elam W. (1983). Couple communication: Equipping couples to be their own best problem solvers. The Counseling Psychologist, 11, (3), 73-77.

Muncy, Mark W. (1983). The contribution of life cycle theory to pastoral premarital and marital counseling. Pastoral Psychology, 31, (4), 244-253.

National Center for Family Studies. (1983). Preparing for marriage. St. Meinrad, IN: Abbey Press/Washington, DC: The Catholic University of America.

Olson, David H. (1983). How effective is marriage preparation? In D.R. Mace (Ed.). Prevention in family services: Approaches to family wellness, pp. 65-75, Beverly Hills: Sage.

Rolfe, David J. (1985). Developing skills and credibility in marriage preparation ministry. Pastoral Psychology, 33, (3), 161-172.

Senediak, Christine. (1990). The value of premarital education. Australia-New Zealand Journal of Family Therapy, 11, (1), 26-31.

Spencer, Max J.; Stahmann, Robert F.; & Hiebert, William J. (1977). Premarital counseling: Sexuality. In W.J. Hiebert & R.F. Stahmann. (Eds.). Klemer's counseling in marital and sexual problems: A clinician's handbook. Second edition. Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins Company.

Splichal, Jan; & Frantisek, Perina. (1985). Inquiry into Czech marital and premarital counseling centers: Current questions on educational preparation for marriage and parenthood. Psychologica a Patopsychologica Dietata, 20, (3), 241-254.

Stahmann, Robert F.; & Barclay-Cope, Anne. (1977). Premarital counseling: An overview. In W.J. Hiebert & R.F. Stahmann. (Eds.). Klemer's Counseling in Marital and Sexual Problems: A Clinician's Handbook. Second Edition, pp. 295-301, Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins Co.

Stanley, Scott M.; & Trathen, Daniel W. (1994). Christian PREP: An empirically-based model for marital and premarital intervention. Journal of Psychology and Chrisitanity, 13, (2), 158-165.

Summers, J. Robin; and Cunningham, Jo Lynn. (1989). Premarital counseling by clergy: A key link between church and family. Family Science Review, 2, (4), 327-336.

Willis, Peter. (1994). Identifying factors shaping adult education: Lessons from pre-marriage education. Australian Journal of Adult and Community Education, 34, (3), 185-194.

Wood, Norma S.; & Stroup, Herbert W., Jr. (1990). Family systems in premarital counseling. Pastoral Psychology, 39, (2), 111-119.

Annotated Bibliography

Issues and Program Designs

Premarital Education Programs

Bader, Edward; & Sinclair, Carole. (1983). The critical first year of marriage. In D.R. Mace. (Ed.) Prevention in family services: Approaches to family wellness, pp. 77-86, Beverly Hills: Sage.

Echoes several Mace themes: importance of first year as joining; realigning loyalties; pattern-setting; role of prevention. Summarizes own and others' research, noting effects of premarital/early marriage skill/discussion treatment 1, 5 years later. Key themes: transition means establishing new roles and implicit rules (i.e., chores) and leaving home (rituals, emotional entanglements, hidden agendas, "fitting in,"). Under "What can be done to help?" authors note Dicks (1963) insight on "courtship deceit;" Guldner's (1971) discovery that couples were most receptive 6 mo. after marriage; success of Wright's (1981) newlywed intervention; Bader's (1977) use of films, couple video, and "Who does what?" small group discussions and conflict-resolution training. Notes participants' greater willingness to seek counseling and enrichment help in marriage.

Bagarozzi, Dennis A.; & Bagarozzi, Judith I. (1982). A theoretically derived model of premarital intervention: The building of a family system. Clinical Social Work Journal, 10, 52-64.

Briefly reviews Bagarozzi & Rauen (1981), proposes theory of intervention for cultivating structural health of new system's tasks following communication skills training, enhanced via problem-solving, conflict-negotiation, contingency contracting for equitable relationships. Empathy and role reversal seen as releasing, but not enough for structural change/flexibility. Examples of content/process, in which couples note expectations, performance, compatability: (1) marital roles (allocation/sex roles; specific tasks); (2) finances (support; budget; decision processes; savings; residence; careers; accounts); (3) sex (extramarital relations; acceptable behavior/communication; decision-making; initiating; extent of sharing with others); (4) in-laws (separation; contact; celebrations & rituals; financial help); (5) friends (mutual friends; acceptable relations; info about relationship); (6) recreation (time spent; planned; shared); (7) children (plans; limits/spacing; alternatives; child care; discipline; education; sex role teaching; stepchildren; handicaps); (8) religion (importance; involvement; disagreement; financial support), and general issues: (9) marriage termination/ grounds; (10) contracting expectations, rights, goals, with each considered in context of deeper issues (power, boundaries/ maintenance, autonomy, help-seeking). Cites need for further program development and long-term research.

Ball, J. D.; & Henning, Lawrence H. (1981). Rational suggestions for pre-marital counseling. Journal of Marital and Family Therapy, 7, (1), 69-73.

Presents Rational-Emotive Therapy view that couples' unrealistic expectations may precipitate interpersonal conflict, especially after marriage. "Thinking traps" include: (1) "See-saw" view of feelings (good feelings must be balanced between partners; other is responsible for own happiness and consequent cycles of martyrdom or provocation) addressed by Ellis' A-B-C theory of emotions; (2) "Lovers-to-leeches" shift (need for approval, emotional fusion, hyper-sensitivity which blocks spontaneous expression) countered by emphasis on self-acceptance/reliance; (3) Crisis-search for blame ("win-lose" mentality, consequent lack of good feeling-growth of ill feeling cycles) prevented by learning "fair-fighting," anticipating specific issues and accepting inevitable differences and mistakes (all by systematic rational thinking). Excellent examples throughout.

Biegert, J. (1976). Premarital counseling. The Christian Ministry Magazine, May, 5-6.Presents pastor's personal experience as husband and PM counselor with brief summary of 6-session procedure: (1) rapport, informal assessment; (2) question/answer, T-J Temperment Analysis; (3) discussion of TJTA results, homework (Shedd, Clinebell, Hine's "Marriage Counseling Kit"); (4) wedding ceremony, budgeting; (5) strengths of self, partner, families, and predicted conflicts; (6) wedding meaning and rehearsal; (7) 6-mo postmarital checkup (usually not attended) discussion of struggles, reaffirmation of support for couple.

Brajsa, Pavao. (1981). Relation psychodynamics of premarital and marital counselling. Socijalna Psihijatrija, 9, (3), 225-244.

Brix, James A. (1984). A plan for premarital counseling. Your Church, 30, (2), 26-33.

Presents background, challenge (why will your marriage be successful?), rationale for PMP in church setting. Sees value in: (1) escape from plans; (2) challenge to think, feel, communicate; (3) examination of compatability and unresolved family issues. Presents plan, applied to meet time constraints of clients: (1) Information and testing (T-J Temperment Analysis: self & partner) and "Four Spiritual Laws" booklet; (2) Faith and family (similar beliefs/resolution, evangelism, genograms [Carter & McGoldrick, 1980, TJTA explanation); (3) needs and role expectations (needs inventory: self-assessment, unmet needs, mate choice reasons, implications of expectations); (4) communication and conflict (information, perceptions, skill review [Clinebell & Clinebell, 1970], conflict issues [Mace, 1976], homework on sex [Wheat cassette]); (5) sexual compatability (open attitude, Biblical bases, training and history, plus, as needed, attention to finances. Empahsizes need to build helping relationship, encourage newlywed marriage enrichment. Example of role expectation inventory provided.

Buckner, Lynn P.; & Salts, Connie J. (1985). Premarital assessment program. Family Relations, 34, (4), 513-520. Presents premarital assessment program which meets training needs of marital and family therapists and couples at various stages in relationship development, using instructional counseling model (Schumm & Denton, 1979) plus strengths/ weakness (based on Barnhill, 1979; Carter & McGoldrick, 1980) review with for couple reevaluation of commitment, further help, or contract for therapy or enrichment. Brief literature review categorized by method, approach, program structure, goals, topics, techniques (for training and couple education), outcomes, applicability, and theoretical approach. Presents program assessing couples via introductory plus 6 sessions over 12 weeks and 3-mo postmarital check. Stuart & Stuart (1975) Premarital Counseling Inventory (demographics, past marital history, relationship development, sex role attitudes, expectations, optimism, concerns, problem and nonproblem areas, based on congruence) used. Goals: (1) couple self-examination of skill competencies (communication, problem solving, negotiation, expectations, congruent perceptions) to reevaluate marriage decision; (2) examination of common problem areas (friends, family, in-laws, religion, values, recreation, finances, children, sex, affection); (3) build rapport for later help-seeking. Assessment session content (emphasis adjusted to meet couple needs): (INTRO) program goals, requirements; completion of PM Inventory; (1) Dating History/Wedding Plans (adapted DRH [Stahmann & Hiebert, 1980]; Qs on progress of/ breaks in relationship, decisions, handling differences, family responses, wedding plans); Assessment Issues: control, conflict, self-esteem, family relationships, commitment; strengths and weaknesses; homework questions, adapted from Wright, 1977); (2) Expectations, Roles, Needs, and Goals (UC & UCS, compatability, problem areas identified from homework; household maintenance; dependency; Qs to individuals: career plans, definition of marriage, open/closeness felt); Assessment Issues: flexibility, motivations, compatability, discrepencies, irrationality; homework is planning first year's budget; (3) Family, Finances, Friends, and Fun (genogram revealing relations, parent marriages, partner needs, compatability, roles, family/friend connections, relationship changes, lifestyle); Assessment Issues (resentment/ separation with family, compatible backgrounds, financial and childcare readiness, friendship patterns/support, shared interests/attachments); homework tailored to couple needs; (4) Parent's Meeting (multigenerational sharing of transition, parent experience via letters, tapes; Qs ask parents for insights on past, future with child); Assessment Issues: in-law relations, support, multigenerational transmission; homework focuses on self-analysis of fighting style; (5) Communication and Conflict (assessment of communication/PS/conflict negotiation; Qs include: attempts at constructive fights, future disagreement; homework tailored to couple needs (6) Values and Sexuality (sexual needs, problems, values, religious orientation/differences using meta-communication skills, agreement, affection, sexual adjustment; Assessment Issues: priorities/topics, agreement, sexual adjustment, birth control; General Assessment Issues: dependence, individual mental health, closeness/distance, power, support and love, expectations, flexibility, commitment, handicaps, fears. Therapist writes report following session noting strengths, resources, potential liabilities, maturity, key issues, commitments, blocks, overall prognosis. Couples are asked what stengths and concerns have emerged. Couples and therapists reported benefits: (1) partner awareness; (2) clarified expectations; (3) better grasp of relationship dynamics. Couples liked: (1) opportunity to discuss untouched issues; (2) in-depth homework; therapist support. Program limitations: (1) few immediate gratifications; (2) no skills taught; (3) too much time; (4) for young couples; (5) demands strong commitment. Program appears to increase couple consensus/expectations.

Campion, Michael A. (1982). Premarital sexual counseling: Suggestions for ministers and other counselors. Journal of Psychology and Christianity, 1, (4), 53-60.

Reviews family/community context of marriage attitudes, background of PMP (esp. Wright, 1977; Schumm & Denton, 1979). Notes difficulty of sexuality as a topic for ministers due to embarrassment, lack of knowledge, and breadth of topic. Recommends questions on 1) sexual history; 2) sexual honesty; 3) birth control/medical exam; 4) marital sex; 5) spiritual considerations (but nothing on guilt, compatability, satisfaction criteria). Discusses bases of male and female responsiveness and sex role differences and consequences for sex education and relationships. Also notes obstacles of sexual exploitation/ violence, idealization, naturalism myth. Notes broad definition of sexuality. Rehearses several male/female differences: 1) sight (M) and sound (F) stimulation; 2) briefer male arousal time; 3) mood influences (F) and misinterpretations; 4) male and female orgasmic experiences; 5) male and female "sexual peaks;" 6) physical and emotional meanings of sex. Notes importance of communication process about sex and intimacy. Recommends Penner & Penner (1981) The gift of sex: A Christian's guide to sexual fulfillment and use (including PM/post-M exercises) of several of its chapters. Recommends return to topic, comparisons at 6 mo. post-wedding session. Emphasizes major goal of PMP is development of openness within couple. Views commitment rather than skills as key to successful marriage and appropriate focus of PMP.

Cevan, Jan. (1983). Preparedness for marriage of minor engaged couples: Experiences from a marital and premarital counselling centre. Psychologia a Patosychologia Dietata, 18, (2), 135-149.

Chesser, Barbara J. (1980). Analysis of wedding rituals: An attempt to make weddings more meaningful. Family Relations, 29, (2), 67-71.

"Presents a framework for studying and analyzing wedding symbolisms, rituals, and pageantry." Notes 7/10 marriages in religious settings; others involve tradition, rituals of other types. Analysis useful to high school and college students (who recognize need for ritual; danger of myths). Students collect accounts of rituals, analyze vows, expectations about rituals, importance of selecting own rituals. Presents information about symbols: (1) ring; (2) setting the date; (3) importance of public acts; (4) transfer of ownership; (5) children in wedding party; (6) kiss; (7) candles; (8) bridal veil; (9) wedding gown; (10) cutting wedding cake; (11) flowers; (12) avoiding evil spirits; (13) changing bride's name.

Clinebell, Howard J. (1977). Premarital counseling: Religious dimensions. In W.J. Hiebert & R.F. Stahmann (Eds.). Klemer's counseling in marital and sexual problems: A clinician's handbook. Second edition, pp. 315-329, Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins Company.

Presents spiritual aspect of marriage (meanings, beliefs, "peak experiences") as binding and growing force which couples need to discuss, clarify, and enhance before marriage. Advocates personalized "growth counseling" approach to meet needs of companionate couples, to which churches, schools, and social agencies can contribute to long-term preparation for and support in early years of marriage. Presents church-based model for young couples: (1) "Head Start on Marriage" (2-3 times/ year; (2) 1-2 prewedding sessions; (3) 6 and 12 mo. marriage enrichment "checkup" with pastor. Notes need to get beyond screening function, using group, workshop, or retreat formats with didactic and communication exercise (Clinebell, 1975) components. Spiritual-existential needs include: (1) belief system; (2) behavior guidelines; (3) integrative commitments; (4) belonging; (5) need for renewal; (6) self-transcendence; (7) community. Discusses "salugenic" (health-producing) vs pathogenic religion. Urges counselors to grasp developmental context of PMC decisions. Presents exercises to: (1) communicate about spiritual issues, sharing and probing past and present experiences; (2) clarify and reformulate values, to examine differences and set goals; (3) planning individual and shared experiences of inner renewal. Encourages spiritual maturation through verbalizing fears, hurt feelings to God. Advocates: (1) sparing use of prayer and scripture to avoid magic, misuse; (2) avoiding sex stereotypes. Comments that "Every marriage is a 'mixed marriage' in the sense that the two persons grew up in different families..." but notes need to: (1) communicate clearly about beliefs; (2) appreciate other's strengths; (3) emphasize need to see differences as enriching; (4) examine potential opposition in ethnic or religious intermarriages before marriage. Recommends contracts about religion for such couples. Notes steps in remarriage: (1) "grief work;" and (2) self-examination in relation to past and future relationship. Concludes with admonition that "All techniques of spiritual growth will be empty and ineffective unless those who use them in counseling and enrichment are congruent in their use."

Dominian, Jack. (1984). Make or break: An introduction to marital counseling. London: SPCK.

Marriage counseling manual with one chapter on "Early Years." Notes high incidence of breakup, emerging problems in first 5 years of marriage. Focuses on potential difficulties/ dissatisfactions (sees as part of "feeling unloved"). Difficulties depend on needs, expectations, and experiences of partners: 1) social (a) parental separation: rejection of spouse, assistance issues, social/emotional overattachment, competition over families-of-origin, divided loyalty, cutoff; (b) housing: development of separation, boundaries, independence; (c) household management: gender role adjustment, unkept promises; (d) money: economic and emotional meanings, separate/joint bank accounts, responsible habits; (e) work: varieties of support, consequences of childbearing; sharing work and home chores; (f) leisure: shared activities, individual freedoms; 2) sexual: physical, emotional, couple commitment expressed in openness throughout the experience, satisfaction, mutual consideration; typical male/female psychological difficulties; 3) emotional: (a) pattern of relating: willingness to be committed, dominance or jealousy, dependence/immaturity, no/poor communication of affection, chronic/irresoluable quarrels (reflecting childhood); 4) intellectual: need for similar outlooks/time to develop, openness to other's views, reliance on reason (M) vs intuition (F); 5) spiritual: shared faith or tolerance usually attained. Discusses impact of children, PM pregnancy, pressures on unready partners, impact on working wife. Concludes advantages of phase are partner good will, determination; disadvantages in futility over early breakup, insecurity about relationship.

Freeman, Donald R. (1982). Preparation for marriage. In D.R. Freeman. (Ed.). Marital crisis and short-term counseling: A casebook. New York: The Free Press, pp. 236-244.

Emphasizes early sex/role learning, rarity of PMC-seeking and typically severe needs: dependent on family, conflicted, violent, seeking to escape. Presents 3-level preventive approach by clinic: (1) educational-interpretive (community group speakers, explaining PMC purpose); (2) 10-wk small groups of healthy PM couples; (3) 1-wk courses with ministers, doctors, lawyers. Initiated 2-hr preventive program in 1956 with advertised panel of psychiatrist and marriage counselor: overflow crowd received application forms for 10 2-hr (small fee) sessions (1 submitted). Appeals to community organizations equally unfruitful. Discusses importance of screening before group counseling (individual and couple) focusing on relationship development, communication, relations with in-laws, siblings, education, religion, friends, employment, and hobbies. Couples reassured that issues will be dealt with objectively, confidentially. PM groups formed with non-relatives, similar couples, used discussion method. Begins with views of PMC, marriage, love (group views challenged by counselor), with group selecting other topics. Interaction results in group trust in 3-4 sessions, facilitating cooperative problem-solving of members' concerns. Sessions also use role playing, with group (couples, same-sex groups) commenting on issues, dynamics, values, with couples responding. Follow-up is a 1-yr reunion, reinforcing group support.

Glendening, Susan E.; & Wilson, A. John III. (1972). Experiments in group premarital counseling. Social Casework, 53, (9), 551-562.

Presents program (offered 5 times) at U.S. Military Academy (21-24 yr cadets, fiances) in weekend sessions (22 hrs) for groups (avg 5) for: (1) personal/couple insights; (2) enrichment techniques; (3) positive helping; (4) feeling expression practice; (5) valuing emotional depth. Methods: (1) pre-session questionnaire to participants; $10 fee; (2) group discussions; (4) follow-up counseling. Marriage Enrichment Weekend sessions (promoted by mail): (1) First day: (a) orientation to marriage, workshop, Qr feedback (dating history, personality match, communication, views/concerns of marriage/parenting, church involvement, family background); (b) introductions, concerns of group members/partners; (c) nonverbal "milling" communication exercise; (d) discussion; BREAK; exercises in open communication (sentence completion, guess partner responses to slide-stimuli; shared feelings; discussion in small group); BREAK; (e) group discussion of communication/ problems, followed by leader's 5 principles, note on difficulty of relating; (2) Second day: (a) discussion of military marriages with fiances (which they rated most helpful); BREAK; (b) reviewed (a) theme with couples; (c) repeated "milling" exercise with happy and angry looks; (d-1) discussion of marriage conflict (transition, marriage routine, money, career-esp. hardship tours, sex as routine, play and communication/intimacy, "falling domino" theory [Lederer & Jackson, 1968] for perspective on stress); (d-2) altered in later workshops to focus on present, group-suggested problems (in-laws, money, dependence, career, children, mutual goals, individual concerns); (e) group discussion on causes and constructive resolution of conflict; (f) role playing modeling and practice of need-identification/ resolution, via reversing roles; BREAK; (g) presentation or question/answer on sexuality with gynecologist or (participants' choice) touching exercise, with a discussion of the experience/ meaning of play, moving into a discussion of emotional aspects of sexuality (attempt to reproduce, unity in relationship, mutual satisfaction, building individual identity) and other sexuality topics; BREAK; (h) collage-play exercise to focus on what was liked about partner; (3) Third day: (a) topics discussed from Qr, weekend requests, including children (decision to have, transition issues); (b) religion (spirituality/intimacy, openness/affirming similarities, giving to others, wedding rituals/affirmations); (c) creative conflict guidelines (Bach & Wyden, 1969) focused on chronic issues; (d) 10 spheres of intimacy (Clinebell & Clinebell, 1970) in a total relationship; (e) discussion of support sources, help-seeking mentality; (f) couples' evaluation via repeated questionnaire and discussion, in which couples indicated the weekend produced: 1) worthwhile insights; 2) a strong support/sharing base (esp. with small groups; although short-term/intense approach fatiguing). Authors note satisfaction with approach vs traditional couple-counselor, need to screen, individually pre-counsel, be sensitive to those threatened by group. Focus on marriage goals, real-life issues (esp. role-played), meeting several months before marriage best approaches.

Guldner, Claude A. (1977). Marriage preparation and marriage enrichment: The preventive approach. Pastoral Psychology, 25, (4), 248-259.

Discusses need for PMP/ME, context in life-skills, transitions. Reviews "Warranty Model for Human Relationships" designed to provide tools for needs/difficulties in stages/changes both on own and via using experience of history, science, arts and persons. Argues that "neo-" periods (early marriage, new parenting, early retirement, etc.) as well as preparation periods ideal for preventive/enrichment (vs therapy) programs. Points out how PMP takes place informally through life. Reviews Guldner (1971); summarizes research on 8 group formats: (1) didactic; (2) 6 topics/speakers; (3) spiritual aspects of marriage; (4) "open-agenda;" (5) sharing, question-answer led by married couple; (6) input, interaction, exercises on specific topics; (7) psychodynamic vignettes/ problem-solving exercises; (8) control group/no PMP. At 1 yr follow-up, #6 was rated most beneficial (due to skill training and interaction); other modes rated as unhelpful preparation for marriage problems. Model designed subsequently emphasizes couple-interaction processes and skills, centered around significant content areas of marriage. Sessions are as follows: (1) build rapport, self/relationship history, introduce purpose/ structure, give T-J Temperment Analysis of self and partner; (2) attitudes toward love and marriage, views on companionship, sharing, affection/sex; (3) self-awareness (best & worst; sex role ID) in context of family-of-origin; (4) daily activities of marriage (home roles and routines, dual careers, budget, eating, friends/ relatives; (5) emotional aspects (dependence, dominance, closeness, nurturance, empathy, unmet needs, negative emotions); (6) affective and sexual (accurate information; Attitudes, Behaviors, Communication); (7) spiritual, valuing, goal-setting. Recommends PMP process levels: (1) thinking (info, insight, readings); (2) feeling (sharing positive, negative); (3) action experiences, developed via: (1) group interaction (i.e., "sculpturing"); (2) homework worked out in group-set "action plans." Advocates "neo-marital" counseling (4-6 wk; 6-12 mo, volunteer or contracted) to deal with roles/expectations, conflict/PS, in-laws, and sexual adjustment. Marriage enrichment through life cycle (weekend or 6-8 wk) suggested, using 1/3 models: (1) Couple Agenda (choice of content, communication focus, group support), with experienced couples; (2) Reading/ group interaction, with motivated couples; (3) Combined input (leader-directed information and exercises + homework on typical issues), best done with a variety of ages and marriage durations.

Hargasova, Marta; & Gajdosova, Jaroslava. (1981). Pre-marital counselling programs for undergraduates. Psychologia a Patopsychologia Dietata, 16, (3), 275-286.

Hinkle, John E.; & Moore, Marvin. (1971). A student couples program. The Family Coordinator, 20, (1), 153-158.

Presents Colorado State University preventive program for premarital and married couples, focused on interpersonal communication skills, constructive fighting, and expression of affection. Assumes: (1) couple love desirable, product of work; (2) growing love based on open communication; (3) intimacy part of distance-regulation; (4) constructive fighting useful; (5) sexual and non-sexual affection important to intimacy. Workshop lasted 6-wk/ 2-hr/wk sessions with 2 trained leaders; announced for couples, engaged, marrieds in student newspaper. Notes evaluation materials. Screening via intake form, brief interview, availabilty of crisis therapist. Each session: (1) feedback or review of homework; (2) exercise/discussion/encounter on a topic; (3) new theme, with homework. Session topics: (1) setting goals (philosophy, verbal commitment, group rules [honesty, freedom to leave/stop, no partner-protection, contract to keep rules, rule reminders], nonverbal get-acquainted, behavioral goal-setting;); (2) communication model (simplified TA: Berne, 1964; 2-step feed-back on ideas, feelings; homework on self); (3) individuality (separateness focus and feedback exercises [Clarke, 1969]; homework on intimacy); (4) nonverbal communication (relaxation, self- and other-awareness, massage); (5) intimacy (individual/ couple analysis/feedback; nonverbal exercises; group sharing; intimacy discussion; homework on fighting); (6) constructive fighting ([I] guidelines, using feedback, Bach & Weyden, 1969, and other means; [II] self-reflection; [III] sharing/update, with bargaining, compromise, agreement; [IV] self-dialogue; [V] making up/contract, according to couple style; plus nonverbal exercises: venting aggression, relaxation; "fight analyses"); (7) constructive fighting (review and practice; reaction to workshop; Relationship Goals Rating Scale; discussion of workshop). Couple feedback indicated: (1) feedback model; (2)constructive fighting; (3) nonverbal communication most helpful.

Holoubek, A.; Holoubek, J. (1973). Pre-marriage counseling. Journal of the Arkansas Medical Society, 70, 176-178.

Describes couple's leadership of an interfaith Pre-Cana program for engaged couples, changes in marriage/programming (roles, family planning, cooperation among churches), processes of adjustment shared by doctor's wife (sacrifice, facilitative communication, need fulfillment, sexual adjustment), doctor (physical aspects of sex, health, pregnancy), lawyer (legal aspects of marriage, birth), and panel of couples (finances, in-laws, friends, extended family, wedding, honeymoon, compatability issues, social influences, available help), completed with Solemn Engagement Ceremony mass. 1-2 hr meetings held in hospital over several weeks or weekend conferences for college couples. Local clergy and medical society plan, are trained, and lead with volunteer couples and guest speakers. Use of interactive methods, visual aids recommended. Informal feedback from couples positive. Program promoted through churches, doctors, signs, newspaper/ radio/TV ads, and 1/2 hr TV program outlining program.

Reviews context and content of Pre-Cana conferences, emphasis on numbers of engaged couples reached. Notes cooperation of several professionals in 5-hr, free (costs shared by agencies) afternoon program (6 times/yr) at hospital. Describes promotion (brochures, TV, radio, newspaper, announcements to clergy, M.D.s, marriage license bureaus, others) and program (M.D.-led) with:

(1) questionnaires and communication inventory (used later); (2) lecture and discussion on psychological (personality, mature mutuality; communication, conflict resolution, relationship enhancement) and physical (sexual anatomy/reproduction, misconceptions, integration of aspects with sex; effects of drugs/alcohol, mental and physical illness, need for thorough checkup, pregnancy) by physician and/or spouse; (3) religion (importance, pastoral counseling during stress times, wedding preparation, church rules, spiritual needs) by 2 ministers; (4) legal (state requirements, insurance, contracts, finances); (5) practical aspects (attraction, similarities, likes/dislikes, backgrounds, engagement, addictive habits, confessions, wedding plans and costs, first home, M/F identity/liberation, finances and credit, family planning, pregnancy, sterility, child rearing, work of marriage, marriage enrichment) considered by 3-married couple panel/discussion; (6) round-table discussion (3-4 couple group, with moderator) used to stimulate questions, discussion, clarification of lecture and discussion; (7) interfaith engagement ceremony. Evaluation questionnaires provide for feedback to Steering Committee.

Huber, Charles H. (1987). Premarital counseling using "Time for a Better Marriage." Individual Psychology, 43, (2), 202-205.

Notes patterns of divorce (1981: avg = 6 yrs; 20% = less than 2 yrs) as rationale for PMP. Notes inadequacy of "scare tactics" in public health promotion; recommends informational approach using PREPARE (Olson, et.al., 1982) and TIME for a Better Marriage (Dinkmeyer & Carlson, 1984), via clergy referral, promoted through professional advertising, emphasizing premarital counseling as "a wedding gift long remembered." Outlines program of 1-hr sessions: (1) introduction (agreement to participate; take PREPARE; homework: TIME, CH 1, 2, activity 1); (2) encouragement and support (review of CH 1, 2; homework: CH 3, activity 2); (3) understanding your relationship (interp. of PREPARE, review of CH 3; homework: CH 4, 5, activity 3); (4) congruency in marriage (review of PREPARE relationship strengths and work areas; review CH 4, 5; homework: CH 6, 7, activity 4); (5) choices in marriage (review PREPARE strengths/work areas; review CH 6, 7; homework: CH 8, 9, activity 5); (6) making decisions and moving forward (review PREPARE strengths/work areas; review CH 8, 9; review and evaluation). No comments on outcomes.

Keith, D.V. (1981). Involving the family in premarital counseling. In A.S. Gurman (Ed). Questions and Answers in the Practice of Family Therapy, Volume 1, pp. 365-368, New York: Brunner/Mazel.

Responds to question about "marrying the family," noting Whitaker's comment "Marriage is the effort of two families to recreate themselves by sending out their scapegoats." Argues PMC useful in clarifying scapegoats' mission, understanding multi-generational implications of marriage, dealing with triangles openly. Also sees family as protecting against upsetting revelations of PMC. Notes couple should decide, invite family members "to help with counseling." Cotherapists should help both families engage in open-ended comment on past, present, future to encourage transition, continued support. Concludes: "Anyone who extends premarital counseling to the whole family ought to write about it."

Knox, David; & Knox, Frances. (1974). Preparation for marriage beyond the classroom. Journal of Family Counseling, 2 (2), 16-22.

Presents college class with involvement activities to grasp nature and dynamics of marriage. Dating students (24 M, 76 F) participated with partner in: (1) exchange of information on economics, religion, children, sex, misc. (in-laws, alcohol, recreation); (2) hike together; (3) developing a budget; (4) selecting an apartment; (5) church attendance; (6) visited with future in-laws. Students found exchange exercise most meaningful (52%), followed by budgeting (35%), recreation (6%), church (2%), with selections unrelated to gender, age, education, etc. Pre-exchange estimation of partner responses was 10-16% different from partner responses, depending on category. Most students (98%) felt project should be continued; 40% said relationship had improved. Examples of resolutions given. Presents rationale for construction of budget before marriage. Observation of future in-laws' interaction and modeling was well received (most said continue it, 40% of relationships improved). Hike (designed to test communication after fatigue) flopped. Religion was generally unimportant or unresolved issue for most couples, thus the experience was not too valuable. NCFR professionals evaluating the project suggested: (1) relabeling hike "The Stress Test" and/ or selecting favorite sport; (2) some recommended only engaged (avoid disrupting early dating); others said all couples might benefit; (3) disagreement on credit requirement; (4) student-selected options for project. Author emphasizes importance of discussing issues premaritally to avoid surprises.

Knox, David; & Patrick, Junior A. (1971). You are what you do: A new marriage approach in preparation for marriage. The Family Coordinator, 20, (1), 109-114.

Describes 4-page behavioral analysis of self and partner (to assess realistic awareness) with 170 steady or engaged students in courtship course and their partners. Initial response was mixed (partners told "if they loved class member, they'd cooperate"). Reports: (1) verbatim observations of behaviors (time-space values: own/partner estimated time in 8 areas; minute-by-minute activities [not micro-behaviors] for a week; comparisons of estimates and actual behavior) and student comments on how behavior matched expectations; (2) abstract values (own/partner list of prioritized values; values predicted that other would list), with comments as above; (3) overview (summary of own/partner behavior; own/partner views of behavior patterns and prioritized values they represent); (4) question-exchange verbatim comments (assume 1 mo. to marriage; own/partner concerns about: (a) economics [job, income, charity, bank account, spending, dual careers, family habits]; (b) religion [concern, church attendance, influence on child rearing, contraception, childlessness]; (c) sex [PM sex, frequency/ marriage, contraception, EMS, foreplay, tension in answering, menstruation]; (d) general [accountability, equality, decisions on home-vacations, sports, child discipline, desired changes in self/partner, self-concept, entertaining, liquor, response to death-of-spouse, freedom, divorce, jealousy, basis of love, goals, views of own/partner parents, parent roles/marriage, friends). T-test comparisons of unidentified categories found no significant differences between estimated and actual behavior. However, several student comments indicated that the exercise had been insightful. Notes implications: (1) building relationship; (2) potential to terminate; (3) increasing conscientious mate selection; (4) personal, behavioral involvement in observing self and partner; (5) teacher (vs peer, parent) responsibility for student decisions; (6) value of college marriage courses in promoting marital happiness.

L'Abate, Luciano; & Lantz, John. (1990). Marriage preparation. In L'Labate. Building family competence: Primary and secondary prevention strategies. Newbury Park, CA: Sage., pp. 176-186.

Notes marriage/preparation are underserved, overlooked areas of FLE, partly due to myths about marriage and adulthood (automatic maturity, competence), and notes negative consequences of neglect (lack of programs outside church; divorce, abuse; inadequate parental modeling/teaching). Views PMP as in early stages, w/o clear education/therapy distinctions, options, outcomes. Proposes single (e.g., BC Council model) and multi-purpose (e.g., MN Couples Communication, Relationship Enhancement, ENRICH) categories. Outlines Marriage Fitness Program to achieve a successful relationship in six steps: 1) evaluation ([Qr items]: social info [85], problems in relationship [240], intimacy and negotiation [32], marital adjustment, Self-Profile chart, MMPI-2), w/ referral to workshop or therapy for a) assessing relationship quality, b) determining readiness for programming, c) establishing a baseline for program evaluation, d) pinpointing areas of concern, and e) collecting basic research data for long-term marital quality evaluation; 2) workshop (1 day, couples + 2 trainers, lecture/discussion) on a) beliefs about marriage, b) compatability, c) structured exercises on marital issues (equality, reciprocity, intimacy), d) skills (seeing good, caring, forgiveness, sharing hurts), and e) optional topics such as fair fighting; 3) homework (lesson/couple-specific) for 2 mo. (8-9 workbook lessons on negotiation, problem-solving, etc.); 4) reevaluation (same items); 5) feedback via mail, with recommendations, rebate on workshop fee; and 6) long-term follow-up (yearly, biannually) for outcome indicators.

Lawler, Michael. (1995). Doing marriage preparation right. America, 173, (21), 12-14.

Reviews results of "Marriage in America" report on Catholic MP. Notes church, papal recommendations for MP and cites key conclusions: 1) vast majority view MP as valueable (93.8% in first year); 2) value of MP declines over time; 3) mandatory MP valuable as voluntary; 4) MP most valued when administered as a team; 5) Intensity of MP contributes to perceived value; 6) MP topics most helpful are communication, commitment, conflict resolution, children, church, and career; 7) correlation between MP value and prior/current religious education; 8) Sense of belonging/participation enhanced MP value; 9) interchurch couples (39% of sample); 10) value expected of MP linked to value derived.

Levine, Laurie B., & Busby, Dean. (1993). Co-creating shared realities with couples. Contemporary Family Therapy, 15, (5), 405-421.

Uses social constructivist approach to understand/aid blending of partner histories/needs by impacting flexibility and negotiation skills. Notes challenges of idealistic, negotiation, and co-constructed reality phases of adjustment; skills to cope with differences (Markman, et al., 1988). Reviews Wamboldt & Reiss (1989) study/ framework for co-construction process: family-of-origin influences, relationship history/stages, personality and other conflict areas, and experience with conflict mgt. shape perceptions and bonds which are the foundation for the duration of the relationship. Examines negotiation-stage processes (esp. flexibility: openness, empathy, self-disclosure) viewed as more critical than initial compatability in determining long-term relationship quality. Data from 1084 couples who completed PREP-M inventory (61% going together, 29% engaged, 10% married; 8% 1 mo., 16% 1-3 mo., 18% 3-6 mo., 21% 2 yrs.; 27% 2+ yrs. dating; 82% Caucasian; 55% some college; 38% Protestant, 28% Catholic, 15% LDS, 7% no affiliation, 12% other). Results: ANOVAs revealed length of relationships sig. affected relationship quality (p < .000), w/quality decreasing over time (although those who negotiate successfully should decrease less). Contrasts of couples in the top 30% and bottom 30% on relationship quality (controlling for time together) found sig. differences in flexibility (p < .000) (although perceived differences were n.s.). Discriminant analyses showed that rel.quality group membership could be predicted 84% of the time based on flexibility score. Implications for therapy include helping couples escape circular conflict patterns and move to a workable negotiation framework; helping couples de-construct meanings (esp. negative) and cultivate deeper, coherent, shared realities (w/flexible approaches to differences); testing and reconstructing metaphors; and reframing from inflexibility (often from family-of-origin) to flexibility may be useful growth tools.

Mace, David R. (1983). Training families to deal creatively with conflict. In D.R. Mace. (Ed.). Prevention in family services: approaches to family wellness, pp. 190-200, Beverly Hills: Sage.

Discusses connotations of "conflict"and "anger" in families and presents a distance-regulation view of the role of conflict in a couple's quest for intimacy: as an inevitable result of and potentially creative means of facilitating relationship development (drawing persons together while cultivating personal growth). Presents method of using conflict creatively: (1) commitment to attitudinal and behavioral change (personal and relational), in the context of supportive couples; (2) development and maintenance of ability to communicate openly and honestly, facilitated by daily "sharing time" and facing issues directly when they occur. Outlines the process of negotiation: (1) accepting and talking about anger, (2) making rules reducing personal attacks, and (3) working out differences rationally as soon as possible. Notes options for negotiation include: (1) capitulation, (2) compromise, and (3) coexistence (agreeing to disagree). States belief that methods will enhance any relationship.

Mace, David R. (1985). Getting ready for marriage. Revised edition, Nashville: Abingdon.

Self-instruction for couples focuses on: (I) concept of preparation: need for enrichment, help-seeking; divorce not disillusion with marriage; "work" of marriage; uses of book, PMC options; gains with PMC (marriage meaning, easing adjustment, marital quality, parenting skill, value of marital counseling; marriage as family foundation; adaptability need in companionate marriages; (II) self-awareness (normal PMC = indiv, conjoint): value of reflection/strengths and conflicts; need to disclose before wedding; confession rules; need to describe self beyond labels; examination of influences and interaction: parents, sibs, friends, education, vocation, interests, spiritual life, sexual experiences, intimacy level, physical health, and temperment; sharing self-evaluations to rate marriageability, compatability; mate selection via random and steady dating, engagement stages; need to examine age, social, educational, religious, racial, taste differences and implications; notes need for flexible companionship vs unions of strength and weakness; attraction to differences; need for realism, work on dreams; kinds of marriage involvement; distance/ conflict; communication/cooperation skill, openness; (III) marriage success: sex life (knowledge; healthy attitudes; feeling, response communication; agreement on PMS [amount, contraception, exploitation], avoiding performance-focus); in-law problems (esp. mother-in-law/daughter-in-law; decisive/conjoint strategy); meaning and management of money (joint accounts, treasurer, budget, personal, debt, insurance, savings); and other issues (children, work, friends, recreation). Provides 50-item list of resources.

Mace, David R. (1983). Training families to deal creatively with conflict. In D.R. Mace. (Ed.). Prevention in family services: approaches to family wellness, pp. 190-200, Beverly Hills: Sage.

Markman, Howard J.; Floyd, Frank J.; Stanley, Scott M.; & Jamieson, Karen. (1984). A cognitive-behavioral program for the prevention of marital and family distress: Issues in program development and delivery. In K. Hahlweg & N.S. Jacobsen. (Eds.). Marital Interaction: Analysis and Modification, pp. 396-428, New York: Guilford Press.

Reviews foundations and components of Markman's cognitive-behavioral PREP. Points to inattention to primary prevention and need for refining theory, need to grasp cognitive factors in marital interaction, and concepts of social exchange. Reviews research on etiology of marital distress, ambiguities of measurement, situational demands in lab settings, and multiple factors (individual and system) in marital success and dysfunction. Briefly outlines principles of premarital intervention: (1) information (expectations, plans); (2) skills (communication, conflict resolution); and (3) strategies (discussion, recognizing cues) for marital readiness and flexibility, focusing on non-distressed/healthy models. Structure for PREP sessions is presented: (1) describe content; (2) rationale; (3) research/clinical evidence; (4) skill, strategy teaching; (5) practice exercises; and (6) homework, focused on (1) knowing common pitfalls; (2) avoiding pitfalls; and (3) exiting pitfalls. Outlines PREP program of five 2-to-2 1/2 hour individual or group sessions led by consultants (with 20 hour training, diagnostic, and training materials). Session 1, "Communication Skills Training: Talking to Each Other," overviews program goals and expectations, attempting to frame issues positively and identify participant goals. Communication skills are introduced, emphasizing the process rather than outcome/ solution (speaker and listener skills, problem discussion). Review and practice of "engaging" communication skills in simulated conflict situations follows, including reflection on videotaped interactions. Homework is preparing an audiotape of conflict situation and discussion and reading "A Couple's Guide to Communication." Session 2, "Communi- cation Skills Training: Videotape Feedback and Practice Problem Discussions,~ teaches and rehearses self-disclosure skills, focusing on couple-identified "difficult" settings and pre-conflict cues. Couples again watch videotapes, discuss, and practice together, with periodic feedback from a consultant, using a verbal/non-verbal behavior checklist of helpful speaker and listener skills. Couples are encouraged to name own and other behaviors which can be changed. Homework is continued reading and taping a "family meeting" reviewed later. Session 3, "Problem-solving Training," teaches couples to negotiate relationship change using specific contracts (using adapted Rabin, Blechman, & Milton, 1981) learned via games rather than vague attributions of intent. Couples then move to a "Marriage Expectation Workbook," which is carried into homework. Session 4, "Putting it all Together and Examining Expectations," summarizes skills, encouraging fit to personal styles and examines expectations using Sager (1976). Couples clarify expectations of marriage and own needs with consultants. Session 5, "Relationship Enhancement and Prevention of Sexual Problems," presents a "fun deck" of potential shared activities. Open and clear communication as well as accurate, thorough information and comfortable attitudes are features of the preventive/enhancement approach to sex education. The authors review program evaluations and results of a survey of behavior-training professionals regarding appropriate issues and methods. Finally, issues of participant motivation, idealism, sex role values, memory, and ethics are discussed, in the context of clinical and prevention programs.

Markman, Howard J.; Floyd, F.J.; Stanley; S.M.; & Lewis, H.C. (1986). Prevention. In N.S. Jacobsen & A.S. Gurman (Eds.). Clinical handbook of marital therapy. New York: Guilford Press. 173-195.

Reviews theoretical rationale and program descrription for Premarital Relationship Enhancement Program (PREP).Notes inadequate attention to preventive efforts. Distinguishes between marital treatment (problem-focused) and relationship enhancement (present vs future-oriented). Identifies family life cycle (critical period/tasks/horizontal stressors: Carter & McGoldrick, 1980; Duvall, 1977) and multigenerational systems theory (Bowen, 1978; Lewis, 1984) as foundational for program development. Transition-to-marriage tasks/horizontal stressors (Lewis, 1984) involve developing: (1) constructive communication, conflict resolution skills; (2) realistic, constructive, compatible attitudes and expectiations of relationship and marriage; (3) behavioral-interaction patterns satisfying partners' basic emotional/ psychological needs; (4) constructive mechanisms for distance-regulation (cohesion); (5) constructive mechanisms regulating pace and path of change (adaptability) ...complex, demanding tasks. Theory proposes: (1) vertical supports (social environmental, transgenerational, interpersonal, intrapersonal) must exceed vertical stressors to maximize adaption to marriage; (2) transition is "crisis" where intervention is needed and more effective. Model developed reflects cognitive-behavioral approach assuming dysfunctional interaction (from skill deficits) precedes relationship dissatisfaction, with warning signs evident early. PREP (7-years tested) emphasizes: (1) communication and conflict resolution skills training (impacting satisfaction with relationship and interaction: Blew & Trapold, 1982); (2) cognitive restructuring (attacking irrational beliefs; reactivity); (3) sensual-sexual enhancement (knowledge; accuracy, without moral reversal). Program begins with (1) recruitment criteria (commitment to stable relationship, intention to marry, without major conflicts; no screening tests); (2) multiple assessments to specify skill emphases (modified Lock-Wallace; areas of agreement; problem inventory; Communication Box impact rating/problem solving; observer ratings of videotapes; beliefs/expectations; sex knowledge/attitudes); leading into (3) 5 2-hr sessions over 5 weeks, using lectures, consultants (2 per couple), homework reading and practice of Gottman, et.al. (1976), and review with a focus on: (1) couple communication skills (speaker, listener, veral, nonverbal), negotiation, "engaging" skills in problem settings, normalizing experiences, philosophy of prevention; (2) analysis of homework and videotapes, "X- (behavior stimulus) Y- (setting) Z (feeling response)" statements taught and used as bases for constructive feedback, developing editing (politeness) and leveling (honesty) skills, with practice; (3) focuses on problem-solving via structured skill-building and board game, examining expectations; (4) analyzing expectations with help of consultants; (5) lecture on sex, sensate-focus exercises, and feedback on training experience. Discussion of therapist factors focuses on advantages of professional and paraprofessional staff, training regimen, need for therapist competency orientation, process focus, and teacher-consultant role and relationship-building skills in intervention. Clinical issues addressed include: (1) deterioration effects (lost ideals, negative issues raised, skill declines: no negative in PREP, although Blew & Trapold study [1982] indicated raising issues in control group may have negative effects); (2) motivation (only 50% completed program, danger of overselling, difficulty of "selling" prevention, need to disseminate widely); (3) information retention and overload (maximized through multiple methods, practice); (4) policy of self-referral appears to work. Notes ongoing program modification and longitudinal research.

Markman, Howard J.; & Halweg, Kurt. (1993). The prediction and prevention of marital distress: An international perspective. Clinical Psychology Review, 13, (1), 29-43.

Reviews current and potential contributions of prevention programs, with rationale (treatment too late; prevention helps maintain higher satisfaction), and principles (Coie, et al., 1991): identify risks, protective factors to target, use intervention to enhance knowledge, view distress and satisfaction, antecedents, and predictor variables as dynamic. Reviews Denver Family Development study (PREP) rationale, purpose (early intervention, track couple relations, focus on interaction), uniqueness (pre-marital/pre-distress, continuity through divorce risk period, assess annual changes), focus (handling conflict, feelings; early marriage, gender differences). Longitudinal study (135 recruited mostly Anglo first-marriage couples, T1: 30 mo. dating, 23 yrs. F/24 yrs. M, 12-18 yrs. education, $5,000-20,000 income; 40% planning marriage, 60% enagaged, 80% sexually active, 39% cohabiting). Of these, 103 (76%) married (14 divorced, 3 separated, 1 spouse died by 5 years), 32 (24%) had broken up before marriage. Attrition rate was 4% after 5 years. PREP couples declined in MS (like trends), post-test through follow-up 2 (3 yrs.), but MS remained stable at 3 and 4 years (30% maintained or improved MS), supporting the view that intimacy is actively eroded by negatives as couples interact. Observations of distressed and non-distressed couples indicated sig. differences on problem solving facilitation for husbands, problem solving inhibition for husbands and wives, emotional invalidation for both partners (n.s. on emotional validation), suggesting male conflict management is a crucial indicator of future problems and that invalidation erodes positive affect. Discussion notes support for PREP effectiveness, but design problems (high decline rate, small, homogamous sample).

Review of PREP application to German (Catholic Church/state government-sponsored) required PMP, explains focus (religious practices, issues, expectations, personality problems), methods (group discussion, lectures by experienced couples, open discussion) typical of Ein Partnrschaftliches Lernprogramm (EPL). EPL program design includes the following: Session 1) communication skills training (lecture on program goals, theology, imp't.of communication); Session 2) coping with negative feelings lecture and practice; Session 3: structured problem solving (views of conflict, disclosure of thoughts, feelings, attitudes toward problem, mutual feedback; wishes and needs regarding problem; cooperative brainstorming of solutions; dialogue on positive and negative consequences; planning implementation); Session 4) lecture, discussion on expectations, using communication skills; Session 5) sexuality issues, values, communication; Session 6) Catholic couple meeting on Christian marriage. Research on EPL (quasi-experimental 77 program couples [34% weekly, 66% weekend], 18 ME program and 12 no prep. control couples) used pre (2 hr. interview, independent completion of MAT, Problem Inventory Qrs, KPI videotaped couple discussion of problem areas), post (6-8 wks. repeat of pre-test) and 1 1/2 yr. (similar) follow-up. Results indicated 1/3 couples low on MAT (controls mostly high). Only higher MAT EPL couples (N = 81) analyzed; two control groups similar. Pre-post results: EPL and control couple MAT and problem-intensity scores (ANCOVA) n.s.; EPL post-test sig. higher on verbal communication behavior (self-disclosure, partner acceptance, positive solution, decrease in disagreement, problem description), non-verbal behavior, indicating training benefits.

Couples wrote positive evaluations and recommended program to friends. PREP-based programming plans include revisions which incorporate new research insights, reducing selection effects in future samples, inclusion of more at-risk couples, and examining effects on child functioning, work, and health status.

Martin, Don; & Medler, Byron. (1980). Using contracts in premarital counseling. Texas Personnel and Guidance Journal, 8, (2), 115-118.

Notes emerging role of counselors in PMP, causes and effects of divorce, need for PMP. Presents contract (between partners, couples in PMP groups, clients and counselors) approach, based on Sager (1976). Authors used contracts with high school and college groups (4-6 couples considering marriage, dating, or individual; structured sessions) to identify focal topics (tasks and chores, child care, professional employment, financial responsibility, religion, sexual relations/pair and other, privacy, communication, expectations, friends, family-of-origin). Emphasizes role of contracting in learning process skills (i.e., conflict management) and expanding awareness of topic/options.

Martin, Don; Gawinski, Barbara; & Medler, Byron. (1982). Premarital counseling using group process. Journal of Specialists in Group Work, 7, (2), 102-108.

Presents 5-session/10 hour college program (4 couples/2 leaders) for engaged/serious dating students, based on Wettstone's (1977) committed couples program. Goals: (1) clarify relationship via contract (i.e., Sager, 1976) and communication skills training; (2) open role expectations; (3) discuss conflict areas; (4) learn techniques for enriching; (5) interpersonal skills improvement; (6) mutual commitments. Sessions: (1) Creating comfortable group atmosphere (trust, open sharing), with "Best Friend" exercise (Pfeiffer & Jones, 1973), Incomplete Sentences (self-disclosure on needs, feelings, expectations, compatability), and Committed Couples Contract; (2) Exploring communication processes (and self esteem), with Beck (176) Communication Behavior Inventory for self and partner with discussion, role plays from Miller, Nunnally, & Wackman (1976), likes and dislikes exercise; (3) Committed couples contract (needs, conflict negotiation skills), using personal and emotional needs feedback sheet and Bach & Wyden concepts, role plays; (4) Exploring self-disclosure and trust in relationships (and listening), with basic counseling skill exercises (active listening) and discussion of Jourard (1964) concepts of communication, trust, and self-disclosure; (5) Role stereotypes and role expectations (with conclusion), using discussion of roles, myths, workshop evaluation, and future goals. Authors note couples feel positively about experience but offer no outcome data. Suggestions on further research: (1) expand discussion of marital role models; (2) examine typical miscommunications; (3) examine relation between low disclosure and fear of losing relationship; (4) explore influences of marital myths and stereotypes. Authors note need to address dual career issues, money, sexual relations, privacy, and social needs.

Martin, Don; Gawinski, Barbara; Medler, Byron; & Eddy, John. (1981). A group premarital counseling workshop for high school couples. The School Counselor, 28, (3), 223-226.

Reviews need for and focus of workshops: (1) preventive; (2) confront myths, stereotypes; (3) increase communication, self-esteem. 5 2-hr/wk workshops for steady and engaged high school couples led by male-female teams presenting information and providing individual and group process feedback. Fliers and counselor invitations (with screening) in school used for publicity. Goals: (1) increase couple communication; (2) identify/ disucss conflict areas; (3) present enrichment techniques; (4) encourage feeling expression. Session content and process: (1) rapport-building (Pfeiffer & Jones, 1979 "Best Friends" exercise), informal awareness assessment via sentence completion, discussion, group goal setting; (2) Communication Patterns awareness and implications presenting Miller, et al. (1976: Alive & Aware 4 styles, role play of conflict situations, and discussion, partner exchange of likes/dislikes with negotiation, appreciation; (3) Buscaglia (1978) videotape on indiv/relationship potential, needs-meeting needs exercise in group, role plays of conflicts using Bach & Wyden (1969); (4) discussion of verbal, non-verbal communication by counselors, couple paraphrasing, feeling exercises, leader discussion of trust and disclosure issues and processes with self-examination of SD difficulty and group discussion of secrets; (5) facilitator discussion of stereotypes with group discussion of implications, esp. for dual careers, ending with focus on growth process and verbal evaluation. Summarizes positive effects of developmental intervention (discussion, questionnaires) (1) parents are primary models, with few contacts with early marrieds; (2) communication problems were primary obstacle to more meaningful relationships; (3) couples lack concept of many aspects of marriage; (4) couples struggled with role definitions; (5) sexual intimacy issues often influenced by peer pressure, need for social identification. Overall, workshops evaluated positively, couples more open, referral easier, a few weddings postponed or cancelled.

Presents 6-session small group PMP program based on clarification of basic attitudes, expectations, improved communication. Reviews earlier studies. Format uses leader-demonstration of appropriate behavior, followed by group discussion, homework directed toward enhancing reciprocal positive behaviors. Includes Unrevealed Differences Test (shared and private goals), sexual attitude Qr, marriage contract worksheet, course evaluation. Presents model for decision-making authority.

Meadows, M.; & Taplin, J. (1973). Premarital counseling with college students: A promising triad. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 17, 516-518.

Notes need for PMC and describes program at Virginia Commonwealth University using Rutledge (1968) developmental model: 1) self-and-other awareness; 2) appropriate roles; 3) communication skills; 4) problem-solving; 5) values, using directive/cognitive "challenging" questions on affection style, finances, in-laws, power, problems/solving, etc. in individual (1-4) and conjoint sessions (1-3) with 6 couples. Results (Qr 1 mo after; 11 responded) found: (1) 2/3 couples who broke up due to sessions were positive; (2) 9/11 preferred joint interviews (1 indiv; 1 no opinion); (3) most productive activity for 3/11 was increased interaction; discussion of views for 3/11; presence of 3rd party in discussion for 2/11; no reason for 1; (4) none preferred all joint interviews; (5) most preferred group interaction. Evaluation of experience indicated: (1) all found PMC helpful; (2) 3rd party (5/11), self/other awareness (4/11) most valued; (3) emotional/values adjustment (8/11), family adjustment (6/11), communication (5/11), sexual adjustments (4/11), and finances (2/11) cited as key problem areas. Discussion notes need for innovations (adapt to nonstudent partner, graduate students, night hours, theoretical approach)

Miller, Sherrod; Wackman, Daniel B.; & Nunnally, Elam W. (1983). Couple communication: Equipping couples to be their own best problem solvers. The Counseling Psychologist, 11, (3), 73-77.

Reviews CC program, beginning with excerpt of group skill practice/feedback session. Repeats historical/theoretical base of Miller et al. (1976); immediate objectives: (1) tools for increased self/partner/interaction awareness; (2) increased communication skills; (3) increased confidence in handling developmental issues; long-range objectives: (1) couple flexibility in dealing with change; (2) increased intimacy, satisfaction; (3) couple self-perception as active agents, gaining skills to adapt successfully. Format: 5-8 couples/ 1-2 instructors, 18 hrs (6 wk, retreat), using different format focus of each session (see Miller, et al., 1976): (1) Awareness Wheel; (2) Understanding Partner (active listening; acknowledging; inviting; checking out; summarizing); (3) Communication Styles; (4) Mapping (understanding, decision-making, realistic action/ difficult issues); (5) Phases of Relationship Development; (6) Conflict Resolution (esp. handling anger, esteem); (7) Building Intimacy, based on skill emphasis, voluntarism, group learning context (see Miller, et al., 1976). Reviews materials, instructor certification; evaluation (Wampler, 1982).

Muncy, Mark W. (1983). The contribution of life cycle theory to pastoral premarital and marital counseling. Pastoral Psychology, 31, (4), 244-253.

Links Erikson's concepts of identity and intimacy with Judaeo-Christian thought and needs of premarital couple. Emphasis on intimacy as union rather than fusion, reciprocal with self-esteem, mutuality rather than dependency. Notes that since identity and intimacy statuses are complex and difficult to recognize (i.e., reworking earlier crises, developmental tasks), they may not be apparent before wedding. Adds that society offers little support for identity/intimacy development (over-emphasis on flexibility; underemphasis on stability). Discusses dialectical relationship of identity and intimacy, importance of addressing both issues and their interaction in PMP. Ties identity and faith development (self-surrender vs narcissism, covenanting, relation to God): "The commitment to a spouse contributes to one's ability to make commitments to God, and vice-versa...The divine/human relationship becomes the norm for marital relationships." Notes life-cycle theory in Clinebell & Clinebell (1970), Stahmann & Hiebert (1980), Gallagher/Marriage Encounter (1975). Notes conflict-intimacy relation. Cites ways to diagnose identity/intimacy (inability to share personally, teen love as identity clarification, confusion about sexual encounters vs marriage roles enhancing individuality, mutuality, willingness to talk about loss of singleness, ideas about mutual goals/support for individual goals, sense of marital identity).

Summarizes Capps' (1979) correlation of Erikson and Pryser for individual diagnosis, as applied to marriage: (1) providence/ trust/mistrust; (2) grace/autonomy/shame; (3) repentance/ initiative/guilt; (4) vocation/industry/inferiority; (5) faith/ identity/confusion; (6) communion/intimacy/isolation; (7) vocation/generativity/stagnation; (8)awareness of holy/integrity/ despair, to promote healthy adjustment and readiness which is theologically sound.

National Center for Family Studies. (1983). Preparing for marriage. St. Meinrad, IN: Abbey Press/Washington, DC: The Catholic University of America.

Reviews policy and programming in marriage preparation in the Roman Catholic Church in the USA. Reports process for initiating study of premarital preparation needs and practices to produce a pastoral aid. Notes late adolescent/young adult "break" with church and implications for PMP. Exploratory study sought to gather basic information on what was being done and working best among dioceses across USA. 70/173 dioceses responded to questionnaire; 100 supplied information when contacted by phone regarding: (1) policies and programs; (2) people involved and processes used; (3) available resources. Results indicated 84.4% of dioceses had marriage preparation policies, most focusing on proximate (several months prior: 60%); although significant numbers had immediate (weeks prior: 57%), and some offered follow-up (newlywed enrichment: 14.5%), and remote (years ahead: 15%). Dioceses stating marriage preparation requirements increased dramatically in the 5 years prior to the study. Recommendations are stated for increasing remote (i.e., sex ed) and follow-up (i.e., later marriages, cohabitation) programs. Concern for satisfying marriages outweighed concern for avoiding divorce in premarital programs; covenantal (couple commitment within community, faith in God) views overshadowed juridical (Canon law) priorities as frameworks for programming. Authors view enrichment approach as a result of post-Vatican II sacramental renewal. Concern is expressed for referral in cases of teenagers, pregnancy, or other issue and for pastoral referral skills. Lists questions used in study. Over 90% of dioceses provided programs (60% required participation), used by most parishes. Most dioceses offer no preparation for special needs couples (premarital pregnancy, marriage following annulment, second marriage, interfaith, older couples, ethnic, ethnically mixed, other). Pre-Cana, Engaged Encounter, and Sponsoring Couple programs were most popular, but application of programs varies from diocese to diocese and such programs are often not based in local parishes. Although participation has significantly increased, incidences of Catholic couples marrying without preparation were found. However, many non-Catholic couples were found to be participating in church programs. Several dioceses intended to develop follow-up programs. Investigation of personnel found the majority of programs had shifted from priest-led didactic to a priest-lay couple lecture-discussion-example model (75% incidence). Preparation of both clergy and laity varies widely, although the latter appear to receive training more consistently. The study pointed to a need to coordinate local parish preparation programs with the work of parochial schools, religious education, youth work, campus ministers, Catholic charities, etc. Evaluation of readiness for marriage (often via guidance instruments) has become important in preparation. Faith statements are increasingly, although not generally, taken from couples (i.e., intentions to establish Catholic home) vs individuals (i.e., attending Mass), and used for evaluating readiness and potential. Most dioceses require 4-9 months notice from a couple to initiate a preparation program, which usually takes place in multiple (several week) sessions of 11-32 hours duration (although time for wedding prep may be included). Programs are increasingly based on experiential exercises rather than lecture; there is no clear evaluation of effectiveness of either. Diocesean reports indicated little continuity among remote, immediate, and follow-up leadership. Given developmental stage considerations and numbers of non-Catholics involved, emphasis on evalgelization within premarital programs was thought to be inappropriate. Continuous support and correction via follow-up were regarded as important priorities for the future. Comparisons with a 1976 study by Rev. Carl Arico found a huge increase in percentages of dioceses with policies (27%, 84%), with these bodies twice as likely to offer programs. The majority of couples marrying in 1980 (documented 46%, estimated 60%) participated in some program. Engaged Encounter and "other" programs experienced the greatest increase in popularity, 1976-81. No difference was found in covenantal vs juridical emphasis on marital readiness evaluation. The report provides information about The Catholic University Clearinghouse on Family Ministries, its file on diocesan policies and programs, and samples of its resource bank of books, articles, and audio-visual materials. The report ends with a brief summary of the historical and ecclesiastical context of family change and need for marriage preparation.

Olson, David H. (1983). How effective is marriage preparation? In D.R. Mace (Ed.). Prevention in family services: Approaches to family wellness, pp. 65-75, Beverly Hills: Sage.

Begins by pointing to irony that while marriage is popular, preparation for its complexities is underestimated. Emphasizes roles of premarital work: (1) prevention/early intervention on problems, (2) learning skills in non-confrontive setting, (3) developing growth attitude about marriage, (4) enhancing the process of deciding to marry, and (5) reducing idealism and promoting realistic expectations. Notes that premarital couples often underestimate problems or fear breakup, thus avoid conflict ...and the "teachable moment." Estimates that 30% have no premarital counseling, 25% have a 1-2 session dialogue (without inventory) with clergy, 10% have dialogue and inventory, 20% participate in lecture, 14% do small group couple dialogue, and only 1% receive several sessions of structured skill-building. Reviews church setting (lecture, office, retreat), and topics (communication, conflict, sex, finances, and values) of existing programs. Notes systematic studies emerging, ineffectivenesss of lectures as found in Norem, et.al.'s (1980) comparison of 5, 6-8 week, programs which failed to teach and often "turned off" participants. Reviews: (1) value of PREPARE inventory and 4-session (vs 1 session) dialogue; (2) Relationship Enhancement effects on premarital couple self-disclosure, empathy, and satisfaction (Avery, et.al., 1980), conflict resolution, problem solving, and communication skills (Ridley, et.al., 1980; 1982) post-test and 6-month follow-up; (3) Bader, et.al.'s (1980) small-group approach to conflict resolution which had a 12-month impact on a treatment group dramatically different than control group skills and attitudes; and (4) Wright's (1981) finding that couples having at least 6 intensive sessions felt they benefitted from a program. Olson describes an effective program (outlined in detail) as one with: (1) some type of inventory, (2) small support group, (3) training in communication and problem solving over 6-8 weeks (if couples came for help that soon) and continues through the first year of marriage. Argues that most therapists have too little time for PMC and that trained lay couples, following the marriage enrichment model (i.e., Most & Guerney, 1981) might share experience, provide a resource and support base, administer and interpret inventories, and lead communication training groups, enhancing their own and engaged couples' relationships. Concludes with recommendations that: (1) PMC should be a national priority; (2) couples should begin training 1 year before marriage; (3) investment in training should equal that of the wedding; (4) research on program effectiveness is needed; and (5) lay couples should be sought as leaders of premarital and postmarital groups.

Rolfe, David J. (1985). Developing skills and credibility in marriage preparation ministry. Pastoral Psychology, 33, (3), 161-172.

Reviews clergy resistence to PMP, recommends structure, procedures, and relationship skills. Sees purposes of PMP for couple as 1) understanding marriage in faith context; 2) self-understanding; 3) increasing realism; 4) strengths and needs assessment; 5) meaningful communication; 6) strengthened pastoral relation. Notes problems from lack of material on pastoral skills: 1) loss of Christian and preventive perspectives; 2) confusion over PMP components; 3) lost confidence, mediocrity; 4) hidden agendas (i.e., rescuer). Compentence, not over-responsibility seen as key to integrity. Recommended components: 1) resources for small-group/first marriage preparation; 2) also for second marriage preparation; 3) written or oral assessment (no instrument presented); 4) optional counseling; 5) spiritual preparation; 6) wedding orchestration; 7) church council involvement (i.e., est. 4-6 mo "waiting period"). Clergy-couple relation built by: 1) affirmation (vs skepticism) of couple's commitment, inviting participation in examining past-present-future; 2) rapport (being "easy-to-talk-to" vs approach, techniques used: cites examples, resources); notes rapport does not substitute for preparation knowledge, skill. Assessment thoroughness (cites resources, topics: housing, money, relationship development, education, religion, children, sex, leisure, friends issues addressed in informational group sessions), testing (interview and written resources, couple exploratin of manipulation, faith issues), and style (open, engaging). Overall, sees PMP as opportunity to facilitate personal, couple, faith development in transition to adulthood.

Senediak, Christine. (1990). The value of premarital education. Australia-New Zealand Journal of Family Therapy, 11, (1), 26-31.

Proposes that premarital programs help couples gain perspective on unrealistic expectations, may prevent divorce, build successful marriage. Defines PMP as "skills training procedure which aims at providing couples with information on ways to improve their relationship once they are married." Recommends time-limited, content-specfic approach for non-clinical couples; notes need (L'Abate, 1981) for leader with understanding of marital problems, communication, negotiation, problem solving, decision-making. Rehearses historical antecedents, target audiences, self-help vs. medical approach, review of program theory and context (Bagarozzi & Rauen, 1981), as well as Australian programs (AAME, CSME). Cites 1984 AAME survey of 23 programs focused on marriage enrichment (communication, sex, money, decision-making, spirituality, family relationships), usually weekend or 2-8 weekly meetings, for groups of 4-20 couples (some individualized), costing $40-80, employing small group exercises, partner discussion, video/demo, and lecture, with emphasis on experiential. "Together as One" couple booklet topics noted (why people marry, managing change, expectations, communication, sexuality, family relations) covered with individual consultation, couples' discussion, couple homework. Notes most programs not evaluated, some unpublished studies, lack of standards, differences in evaluation methods. Discusses difficulty of evaluation (program differences, volunteer audiences) and adjustment to facilitators (format, style; need for standard post/follow-up report forms). Sees critical needs for couples as: clarity of purpose (practical information, support, skills), willingness to confront needs, application of insights (about lifestyle, values) vs. fulfilling external requirements, recognizing responsibility/power to shape marriage, seeing effects of cultural influences, pursuing marriage only if ready, and recognizing media vs. reality images. Gives a personal account (N = 1) of Catholic PMP options: 1) weekend retreat with few couples, 2) 4-session/20-30 couple (area), or 6-session/5 couple (parish) "Evenings for the Engaged" with leaders chosen for interpersonal qualities, religious commitment, interest in program; meetings at home of sponsor couple, mostly didactic and structured, characterized by anecdotes, skills and issues training, Catholic perspective, encourage responsibility and awareness of partner needs, involve practice and written expression. Notes problems: 1) no theoretical foundation, 2) little discussion, skill application, 3) religious orientation not stipulated but critical to program. Participants contacted two years later did not practice PMP skills, but developed own style of relating based on family-of-origin model, trial and error. Closes with emphasis on personalizing, theory-base, reality/readiness testing, relevancy, professionalism, funding.

Discussion/facilitation of sexual functioning seen by clients as routine part of PMC. Also notes that counselors' questions, attitudes not all resolved. Physiological and psychological dimensions seen as important as part of an educational [information and subsequent attitude shifts] (vs counseling [application of info to fulfilling, responsible behavior] or therapeutic [depth treatment of pathologies]) context. Notes multidisciplinary field of sources, topics for support of competent providers. Suggests fertility (body functions, cycles; behavioral implications and treatment) as basic to course. Addresses myths (McCrary, 1973): (1) men need little information; (2) hymen broken only by first intercourse; (3) genital size/ incompatibility; (4) female orgasm unnecessary; (5) vaginal structure; (6) vagina as unsanitary; (7) vagina as stationary; need to explain sexual response cycle (Masters & Johnson, 1966). Argues that timing depends largely on provider's circumstances: (1) physician (premarital exam; group meeting); (2) clergy (integrating sexuality with other aspects of family life); (3) counselors, social workers (individually or workshops), following general rules: (1) sexual-affectional info appropriate for all providers; (2) counselor role important in client expectations; (3) inclusion of sexual-affectional critical to PMC; (4) overall PMC goals best determinant of sequence and content; (5) post-marital follow-up desirable. Limited recommendations for topics (materials suggested): (1) biology and sexual functioning; (2) sexual response and extra-reproductive functions; (3) family planning and contraception; (4) integration of information with values, attitudes of couple. Informational Sex Knowledge Inventory and Venereal Disease Knowledge Inventory (McHugh, 1968) recommended to establish needs, plan sessions and bibliotherapy. Strongly recommends providers increase background in all areas.

Introduces book section on PMC with comments from Mace (1972): couples need more information before and after marriage... premarital counseling can enhance and enrich healthy relations; Rutledge (1966): discovery of selfhood, personal growth, communication and problem solving skills are basic to marriage; Ellis (1961): couples ignorant about need to learn about marriage; Butterfield (1956): marriage requires a multitude of skills. Notes clergy, physicians, clinicians are most frequent providers, the former using an educative vs therapeutic model and moving steadily from didactic to interactive methods. Cites Schonick (1975) study of counseling for minors. Notes time limits in physician counseling. Summarizes purposes of PMC:

(1) education; prevention; (2) conjoint; (3) voluntary and early; (4) 2-hr/4-5 session small groups; (5) assessment feedback to clients; (6) audio/video analysis; (7) bibliotherapy; (8) increasing demand for remarital counseling; approaches to PMC: (1) communication skills training (lab, homework); (2) constructive conflict resolution; (3) sex education; (4) values clarification exercises; format to PMC: (1) conjoint sessions; (2) lecture; (3) small group interaction; (4) films/slide-tape presentations; topic areas in PMC: ref. to chapter on "PMC Process and Content;" future of PMC: (1) emphasis on couple interaction; (2) communication focus; (3) preventive vs problem-oriented; (4) information-giving, but with greater attention to needs; (5) increased acceptance of professional help.

Stanley, Scott M.; & Trathen, Daniel W. (1994). Christian PREP: An empirically-based model for marital and premarital intervention. Journal of Psychology and Chrisitanity, 13, (2), 158-165.

Presents Christian scriptural base for empirically-validated cognitive-behavioral PREP model for intervention with (functional and distressed) premarital and marital couples. Views research as a tool to understand God's truth, preeminent in Scripture. Sees marriage as union (Matt. 19:7), conflict/disunity a consequence of the Fall. Scripture offers principles for healthy marriages (Song of Songs, 1 Cor. 13, Eph. 5, etc.--without specifying an exact pattern), wisdom on the mystery of union (Eph. 5:32), destructive patterns (corroborated by research): Research shows escalation, invalidation, and withdrawal, which predict marital breakdown, are advised against (Prov. 12:18, 15:1, 29:11; Eph. 4:25-27; Gal. 5: 13-15) and handling of conflicts should be central to training. Model proposes: 1) marriage designed by God to be growth, nurturance, mystery in love; 2) sin and the Fall predispose marriage to barriers, esp. self-protection; 3) resultant conflict increases vulnerability to hurt and breakup. Cultivating trust, intimacy (by structuring negative exchanges as growth opportunities) helps couples maintain hope and unity. Emphasis on how to implement skills--amid conflict--is viewed as key to intervening with happy as well as distressed couples. Notes importance of ground rules (bounding conflict), using conflict to grow (vs. undermine) in lowering anxiety, increasing constructive communication. Model applied to premarital and marital couples, distressed and non-distressed (typically 5-6 session). Results of longitudinal study include 50% lower divorce rates, less negative communication and aggression, increased satisfaction. Christian PREP focuses on common ground among denominations, with flexibility to supplement with specific teachings. Notes value of behavior change as transcendent of and contributing to insight about self, partner. Shows how teaching about filtering (interpretation) patterns aids reversal of misattributions, reactive responses; how dedication-type commitment parallels agape love and provides perspective on marital expectations. Explains how couples can structure conflict by planning discussion of disagreements (vs. engaging in continue "open season") or use of turn-taking speaker/listener roles, respect and validation processes. Use of simple rules is defended on grounds that couples master and use them in conflicted situations--to work toward forgiveness and oneness--more consistently. In consequence, cognitive strategies which bond one to spouse reduce attractiveness of alternatives.

Summers, J. Robin; and Cunningham, Jo Lynn. (1989). Premarital counseling by clergy: A key link between church and family. Family Science Review, 2, (4), 327-336.

Points to church-family (oikos) as foundation for PMP/FLE (w/80% of marriages in churches, clergy as 75% of providers, emphasis on PMP (notes pathology/screening focus , variety of formats, theories, limited evidence on effectiveness). Reviews status of PMP by clergy (dep. on denomination; requirements, pastoral counseling focus), mental health professionals (indiv/psychotherapy giving way to systems focus), physicians (esp. birth control, sex info). Notes prevailing views of clergy as crisis counselors, experience as best teacher. Reviews pastoral and general counseling common ground (interaction, dialogue) and differences (faith stance, theological/ethical/ spiritual growth base). Examines importance of counseling (#2 behind preaching) and PMP (#2 behind marriage counseling) to clergy; clergy preparation (Orthner, 1986: 90% United Methodist clergy conducted counseling, yet 61% used personal knowledge as #1 source; Hill, 1968: 24% had no counseling training, 64% had one or more courses, 10% had supervised experience [24% own experience]). Notes sparse literature on clergy as PM counselors, few seminary or graduate courses, clergy sources (Weddle & Cunningham, 1986: experience, courses in theory (counseling and marriage/family, technique, books and articles, college courses, and continuing ed.). Cited evidence (Weddle & Cunningham, 1987) that clergy tend to accept popular myths of marriage (thus needing more continuing ed.). Notes popularity of family-of-origin approach (Jordon, 1986) and contrast between clergy-perceived (self-disclosure, education, enrichment, resource-availability, moral teaching, screening, wedding rehearsal) and actual (review of wedding expectations and arrangements, partner expectations, religious faith issues) services provided in PMP (Weddle & Cunningham, 1986). Notes Smith & Smith (1986) inventories and curricula. Notes clergy frustration with lack of advanced notice (reflected in 3-session avg.) Develops model of PMP modules for self-training (based on Smith & Smith, 1981), need for FLE, researcher, clergy input, comprehensive model into marriage enrichment and evaluation of program effectiveness.

Willis, Peter. (1994). Identifying factors shaping adult education: Lessons from pre-marriage education. Australian Journal of Adult and Community Education, 34, (3), 185-194.

Focuses on PM education (formal groups, usually in churches, focusing on awareness and skills training of couples) in Australia. Notes adult apprehension about "being told," need for varieties of non-coercive learning and exchange. Describes (church) sponsorship styles: 1) professional-type (stressing formal clerical and counseling training; liberal, flexible approach); 2) priestly-type (stressing conformity to rituals and beliefs; orthodox); and 3) prophetic-type (stressing personal qualities and calling; conversion and supervision of cxouples). Notes link between theology, pedagogy, and confronting (members) or prostletizing (non-members) approaches in MP. Views information (vs. 'religious agenda') as essence of "helping church" for couples. Recommends integration of psychology and welfare into MP (non-intrusive, couple-focused, skill-oriented, reality-testing). Cites health/welfare agency approaches (informational, skill-training) as examples of need to critique underlying purpose. Reviews adult learner needs for participation (enrichment vs. indoctrination), ongoing learning, and transitional skills (introspection, forecasting, interpreting, skill-learning, decision-making, healing, rebuilding, acting). Emphasizes learning for "coupledom," w/MP as first adult learning project. Notes how adult educators can learn from help-seeking; how requirements inspire resistence; need for orientation and engagement processes; and need to help participants reflect on their own experience.

Wood, Norma S.; & Stroup, Herbert W., Jr. (1990). Family systems in premarital counseling. Pastoral Psychology, 39, (2), 111-119.

Opens with Carl Whitaker quote about partners as captives of dysfunction al families and challenges of marital adjustment with realistic expectations for couple and reconciliation potential of PMP. Identifies PMP clergy roles as educator/preacher on marriage and assessment (of compatability) and discussion of personality. Cites clinical sources picturing PMP couples as unrealistic optimists. Proposes family systems PMP used w/500 seminarians and pastors to account for romanticism and reflection on past, present and future relationships from perspective of first year. Outlines family-of-origin-based sessions: 1) PMC agenda, discussion of marriage; 2-5) examines family system/impacts with development of genograms, between times and used to discuss nuclear family views of health, money, education, work, religion, sex, roles, and interaction (dyadic-to-family) power, decision-making, child discipline, individualism/sharing. Provides case study of blending process, w/special attention to "subterranean dynamics" (Minuchin: enmeshment) in early system formation (understanding and interaction patterns, repeating and reacting).

Premarital Education Programs

Client Needs - Bibliography

Marketing issues and client needs assessments .

Duncan, Stephen F.; Box, Gabrielle; & Silliman, Benjamin. (1996). Racial and gender effects on perceptions of marriage preparation programs among college-educated young adults. Family Relations, 45, (1), 80-90.

Martin, Don; & Martin, Maggie. (1984). Selected attitudes toward marriage and family life among college students. Family Relations, 33, (4), 293-300.

Silliman, Benjamin; & Schumm, W.R. (1993). Influences on young adults' intentions to attend a premarital preparation program. Family Perspective, 27, 165-177.

Silliman, Benjamin; Schumm, W.R., & Jurich (1992). Young adults' preferences for premarital preparation program designs: An exploratory study. Contemporary Family Therapy, 14, 89-100.

Silliman, Benjamin; & Schumm, W.R. (1989). Topics of interest in premarital counseling: Clients' views. Journal of Sex and Marital Therapy, 15, (3), 199-204.

Williams, Lee M. (1992). Premarital counseling: A needs assessment among engaged individuals. Contemporary Family Therapy, 48, (6), 505-518.

Yarber, William L. (1981). Student perceptions of need for family life and sex education. Education, 101, (3), 279-284.

Premarriage Assessment Bibliography

Discussion of screening and evaluation instruments and procedures used in practice and empirical research.

OVERALL

Larson, Jeffry; Holman, Thomas B.; Klein, David M.; Busby, Dean M.; Stahmann, Robert F.; & Petersen, Diane. (1995). A review of comprehensive questionnaires used in premarital education and counseling. Family Relations, 44, (3), 245-252.

PREPARE

Fowers, Blaine J.; & Olson, David H. (1986). Predicting marital success with PREPARE: A predictive validity study. Journal of Marital and Family Therapy, 12, (4), 403-413.

Fournier, David R.; Olson, David H.; Druckman, Joan M. (1983). Assessing marital and premarital relationships: The PREPARE-ENRICH inventories. In E. Filsinger. (Ed). A source-book in marriage and family assessment. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.

Larson, Andrea S.; & Olson, David H. (1989). Predicting marital satisfaction using PREPARE: A replication study. Journal of Marital and Family Therapy, 15, (3), 311-322.

PREP-M

Holman, Thomas B., Larson, Jeffry, & Harmer, Stacy L. (1994). The development and predictive validity of a new premarital assessment instrument. Family Relations, 43, (1), 46-52.

Premarital Education Programs

Client Needs - Annotated Bibliography

Opens w/need for PMP (divorce, roles), effectiveness of researched programs, likely participants. Outlines marketing goals as attracting audience and targeting program development. Framework of 4Ps of marketing: 1) Product (time, format, schedule, methods, source, focus, topics, title, leadership, volition); 2) Price (cost [vs. other options]); 3) Place (location, travel distance); and 4) Promotion (awareness, source) introduced, noting importance and limits of consumer and research-based approaches and advantage of a blend for prevention programs. Study examined interests/motives for PMP attendance; assessment of appealing components; and patterns of preference by gender and race. Sample were 187 students from traditionally-white and 123 from traditionally-black Southern colleges (73% from intact parent family; 56% from > $56,000 income). Questionnaire was modified from Silliman, et al. (1992), with Likert-scaled items ranging from poor-to-excellent or extremely opposed-to-extremely interested on Format: Group/Self Education (lg.group, classes, self-help materials, sm. grooup; alpha reliability=.76) and Personalized (couple-trainer, indiv-trainer, indiv&couple-trainer, alpha=.72); Sources of Information: Personal Media (video, computer, Extension Service program, newsletter; alpha=.86) and Counseling/Education (PMP workshop, PMP classes, school class; alpha=.78) and Significant Others (talking with...parents, friends, married couples, clergy; alpha=.64) and Public Media (magazines&books, TV/radio; alpha=.57); Instructional Methods (how-to skills, combo, discussion, question-answer, instruction; alpha=85); Foci (awareness-building, skills, information; alpha=.74); Topics: Interpersonal (commitment, communication, stress mgt., children, sexuality, leisure, conflict, compatability, family-friends, money; alpha=.93) and Intrapersonal (spirituality, roles, religion, personality, strong families, examining each other's families, readiness, avoiding divorce; alpha=.92); Leadership (Extension agent, combo, professor, mental health/social worker, counselor, doctor, lay leader, clergy; alpha=.86); Leader Characteristics: Favorable (respected opinions, well-trained, friend; alpha=.79) and Undesirable (not open, divorced, probing; alpha=.67); Promottional Source: Trusted/Available (recently married couple, parent, doctor, friend, counselor, church, newspaper, TV/radio; alpha=.85) and Impersonal/Unknown (mailed brochure, business/workplace, college; alpha=.74). PCA factor analysis found all but Location category had intercorrelations above r=.30; all items associated with extracted factors loaded > .50 except Learn-by-Experience (Public Media), Favorable (Leader Char.) wh/were deleted. Preliminary analyses found no sig. differences between M&F on demographics; sig. differences between races on parent income, father education, urban residence, school class, and single-parent family experience. Discussion revealed Product (brief < 5 hr.), voluntary, 4-6 wk/evening, by disc.group/workshop, group ed.setting, leader w/ favorable characteristics, involving sig.others and focusing on IP topics); Price (< $50); Place (w/i 15 mi; religious or college setting); Promotion (committed rel. via trusted personal sources) were predictive of high interest overall. Differences by race, gender were sig., but small and often in less-pref. items: 1) Whites more willing to travel, spend more time; 2) Blacks saw more need for PMP (less awareness, more concern), more flexible about location, timing; 3) White F had greater interest (sensitivity to affective), but M interest indic. gender role changes, need for M-oriented promo.appeal. Key promo. points: invitation, building strengths, value (time, money), practical benefits, options for rel.stages. Notes limits of convenience, student sample. Implications include: need for effective trainers, longer programs, communication skills, increased couple and community awareness, varied marketing approaches, emphasis on traditional values, skills for new roles, positive role models, sensitivity to diversity. Recommendations: evaluate research on program length, topical factors; use sliding scale, involve parents, friends, homework.

Martin, Don; & Martin, Maggie. (1984). Selected attitudes toward marriage and family life among college students. Family Relations, 33, (4), 293-300.

Reviews context of marriage and family changes. Presents survey of 5,237 students in AR, LA, OK, and TX (57% F; 20 yrs avg; variety of backgrounds) using Marriage and Family Life Attitude Survey (Martin, 1982: 43 statements/Likert rating; reliability = .81) returned by 74% of surveyed students. Results indicated: (1) 50% engaged or desired Premarital Intercourse; 72% felt it unacceptable without love; 64% would not cohabit, but most would tell parents if they did; (2) 75% viewed parents' marriage as happy; 90% saw marriage as lifelong, with divorce unacceptable (18%); 80% felt they had skills for marriage; about 1/2 were not ready; (3) 88% viewed childhood as happy; 62% viewed daycare as acceptable for 2 working parents, although 48% felt 1 parent ought to stay home; over 90% saw childcare as a responsibility of 2 parents, although 70% felt ready for it; a majority indicated children were not necessary for happy marriage, but 76% wanted 2 or more children; (4) 88% felt househod responsibilities should be divided equally, though 70% saw chores as sex-specific; respondents thought equal careers were O.K.; 64% would move with a spouse; (5) 90% felt sex was important in marriage; only 26% thought male should initiate; 73% said extramarital sex was wrong for them; (6) 78% viewed friendships as important for married persons, with 57% seeing couple socializing as important, with 80% wanting to marry someone with the same social needs; 75% believed couples should not argue in front of others; (7) Only 12% viewed religious practice as unimportant in marriage, with 51% convinced that children be required to attend; less than 15% would not marry someone of different background; (8) 85% desired to talk out disputes; 60% were confident in abilities to express feelings; only 27% were inclined to withdraw in response to arguments; almost 80% wanted to improve expressive capacities; (9) 14% would not marry due to in-laws; 23% would not feel obligated to visit disliked relatives; only 15% agreed with an uneven distribution of visiting time; 75% would marry a chosen partner regardless of parent opinion; (10) 53% intended to seek premarital counseling, with 61% indicating need to learn more about marriage; 65% were positively disposed toward marriage enrichment, 75% for parent education; 76% believed counseling was not just for "couples in trouble." Discussion recommends sex ed. and communication skills training, more awareness-enhancement regarding interactive skills/demands of marriage and implications of sex role equality, premarital sexual behavior (esp. birth control and intimacy). Points out needs for FLE on child care, daycare choices, and in-law relationships with unmarried. Notes growing acceptability of counseling, especially marriage and parenting workshops.

Silliman, Benjamin; & Schumm, W.R. (1993). Influences on young adults' intentions to attend a premarital preparation program. Family Perspective, 27, 165-177.

Presents practical and theoretical rationale for use of symbolic interaction-compatible Ajzen-Fishbein (1980) social psychological theory of reasoned action featuring two independent variables: 1) perceptions of normative beliefs (NB) on some target variable (summed across sig.others) (i.e., partner view of PMP attendance) multiplied by 2) subjective evaluation of outcome(s) (positive: gaining communication skills; or negative: avoiding divorce), with subjective probabilities (likely or unlikely) (IB: Individual Beliefs), used to predict a dependent variable 3) behavioral intentions (BI; i.e., plans to attend PMP), shown to best predict future behavior (actually attending). Deomgraphic, personal and family variables (optimism about marriage, imp't.of vital marriage, familiarity, years dating, dating status) were also incorporated in MANOVA analyses. Subjects were 129 females and 46 males, avg. 21 yrs. in human ecology, business, and agriculture courses at a midwestern state university. Ninety-seven percent were Caucasian, 53% Protestant/38% Catholic/6% no affiliation (50% moderately active, 9% very active, 41% inactive in religious organizations); rural, small town, small city, and suburban/urban areas were about equally represented (20-24%); large towns somewhat less (11%). Incomes of parents of respondents were largely over $45,000 (41%) or between $20-45,000 (49%). Most *71%) had been dating over 4 years; 10% were currently engaged, 39% seriously dating, 23% causually dating, 27% not dating. Most subjects (55%) reported a loving family climate and optimism (68%) about marriage. All were at least somewhat familiar with marriage prep. programs.

Direct entry multiple regression methods were used to test the reasoned action hypothesis, predicting intentions to attend from: 1) only demographic variables; 2) demographic and contextual; 3) demographic, contextual, and attitudinal; and 4) all variables. Backward regression to 5) check on effects of n.s. variables in prior models and 6) inclusion of only reasoned action variables to compare models with reasoned action variables alone. Intentions was sig.correlated (p < .05) with younger position in birth order (r = .13), family size (r = .19), familiarity (r = .39), importance of vital marriage (r = 15), optimism about marriage (r = .16), religiosity (r = .21), dating commitment (r = .21), duration (r = .15), and anticipated time to marriage (r = -.81). Normative beliefs (r = .68) and Individual beliefs (r = .47) and their interaction term (r = .60) were correlated with Intentions. Of 28 ANOVAs, only one sig.quadratic effect was found (familiarity, p < .04; but linear effect here was p < .0001). In each model, gender was sig. (F more interested); religiosity was sig. only in 1 and 2; age was sig. in Model 4; familiarity, normative and individual beliefs were sig. in all models. Follow-up analyses found strong correlations with intentions for dating partner/fiancee (r = .60), mother (r = .57), closest friends (r = .52), close sibling (r = .48), father (r = .48), and religious leader (r = .44). Follow-up tests on interaction effects indicated that high levels of normative support, variance in individual beliefs did not much change intentions. No sig. interaction was found between gender and dating status and key independent variables. Normative and individual beliefs were correlated (p < .001) with intentions .78 and .55 for males, .64 and .31 for females. Similar correlations for casual (.75 and .48) and serious or engaged (.63 and .43) dating status were detected. Overall, the basic model predicted 36% of the variance in intentions to attend; models including demographic and other variables predicted 30% of variance, with the two types of beliefs uniquely contributing another 15%. Findings suggest a thoughtful decision process which might be influenced in general ("selling" to sig.others, empahsizing benefits) and specific ways ("selling" specific topics, outcomes) more predictably for men than women, and including persons at many dating statuses, religiosity, etc.

Silliman, Benjamin; Schumm, W.R., & Jurich (1992). Young adults' preferences for premarital preparation program designs: An exploratory study. Contemporary Family Therapy, 14, 89-100.

Reviews history, traits, effects of premarital education programs, need for client perceptions and preferences (for timing, requirements, provider, length, format, ) interest in participation. Exploratory study (185 mostly Caucasian undergraduates; 10.3% engaged, 38% dating seriously, 23% dating casually, 29% not dating; 88% from intact families; 73% w/parent income over $30,000) found 67% valued vital marriage, 88% said conscious preparation for marriage was important, 74% had high or very high need for information, 91% were familiar with programs, most often in churches (41% required). Intentions to attend were strong (38% extremely, 27% quite, 12% slightly likely). Parents were rated most preferred and highest quality source of information on marriage, with PMP, experience, friends, school, and media rated sig. lower. A 3-4 hour program was preferred, followed by 1-2 and 5-6 hr. options, all of which had sig. higher means than options involving more hours (as recommended by model programs). A 6-session package is recommended, with options to add additional topics or consultation as rapport and benefits recommend. A combination of providers was most desired, followed by interest in clergy leadership and both sig. preferred over private trainer, teacher, mental health worker, lay person, or physician. Use of teaching/consulting team or guest speakers is recommended. Provider traits most valued were well-trained, respectful, and familiar; lack of openness and probing were least desirable, recommending a client-centered, non-judgmental approach. Engagement was identified as the most preferred training time, followed by cohabitation, serious and casual dating. Strong interest at all times suggests some potential for brief relationship-enhancement sessions, while other research (Guldner, 1971) recommends post-marital sessions. Interest in voluntary participation was sig. higher than recommended or required programs; interest declined with successive increments of cost and group size (but $0-50 programs using professionals and individualized attention may be infeasible and small group discussion may enhance learning and support). Respondents preferred a combination of instructional methods sig. more than interactive, question-answer, skill training, or instruction, although all attracted high levels of interest. Methods and topic interest patterns suggest appreciation of the role of communication and conflict resolution skills in marriage. Results indicate strong interest but limited vision of the nature of PMP; marketing should emphasize voluntariness, benefitting from marriage readiness (esp. interactive skills), provider competence and support, in a 6-session training for engaged, cohabiting, or seriously dating couples. Inclusion of parents/family-of-origin and religious traditions may likewise be valuable training assets. Cost preferences suggest therapists cannot concentrate on PMP exclusively but those who provide PMP may diminish marital problems and/or open doors for later helping.

Silliman, Benjamin; & Schumm, W.R. (1989). Topics of interest in premarital counseling: Clients' views. Journal of Sex and Marital Therapy, 15, (3), 199-204.

Notes low rate of participation in PMC, limited input by clients. Consumer interest survey developed from prominent program/ assessment topics (alpha = .92) given college students (53M, 132F; 18-25 yrs.; never-married; in human ecology, business, and agriculture classes). Overall interest in all topics was high (5.6-6.3/7.0; 98% positive responses); 74% were quite or extremely interested in topics (Martin & Martin, 1984 found 52% interested). Sample may not represent all young adults but are more likely to attend educational programs and value growth-oriented marriage. Topic preferences: 1) parenting; 2) resolving differences; 3) effective listening; 4) forgiveness; 5) strong family; 6) avoiding divorce; 7) money management; 8) marital roles; 9) stress management; 10) sexuality; 11) time management; 12) in-law relations; 13) spiritual development, with sig. differences (p > .001, set lower to control for multiple tests) between 9-13 and 1-8, 10-13 and 5-9, 11-13 and 6-10, 12-13 and 8-11. High interest in parenting may reflect inexperience with children or distraction with less immediate issues; low interest in sexuality may indicate knowledge about sexuality, fear confessing ignorance or be reluctant to discuss sex with clergy, frequent providers. Subgroup analyses (MANOVA) reveal sig.effects by gender (F higher), class (HE, BUS, AG), familiarity (more is higher), level of religious involvement (more is higher), but not religious affiliation, hometown background, dating status, or years-to-marriage). Males and females equally valued parenting topic. Notes males and females may differ in reasons for valuing topics. Notes specific patterns such as low overall AG interest, but high interest among AG students in money management. While most who are more familiar are more likely to attend, a minority (mostly reacting against church, spirituality) have opposite tendencies. Adjustments in marketing (i.e. practical issues for males) and training (i.e., individual as well as couple time; sessions during dating) are recommended as ways to individualize intervention.

Williams, Lee M. (1992). Premarital counseling: A needs assessment among engaged individuals. Contemporary Family Therapy, 48, (6), 505-518.

Yarber, William L. (1981). Student perceptions of need for family life and sex education. Education, 101, (3), 279-284.Examined (via 1-page questionnaire) perceptions of need for family life and sex education areas (and desire to learn more) in third (N =552), sixth (N=593), ninth (N=446), and twelfth (N=188) grade boys and girls in Indiana (as part of study of 15 health-science areas). Third, sixth, and ninth-graders most often indicated (51%) they "Would Like to Learn Much More" vs a smaller number (30/35/41%) who "Would Like to Learn a Little More." Equal numbers (39%) of twelfth graders preferred each category. Even smaller numbers (20/13/8/22%) indicated they "Do Not Want to Learn More." Overall, about 80% of students indicated some interest in more FL/SE information. Chi-square tests indicated 12th graders desired less information than other grades. Chi-square and Cramer's V-tests revealed a significant gender difference at 3th and 12th grades (females desiring more). Female interest in information was higher in all age groups; male desire for information was lowest at 12th grade. In comparison to other health areas, FL/ SE ranked 11th, 3rd, 2nd, and 3rd for the 4 grades.

Premarriage Assessment--Annotated Bibliography

OVERALL

Notes lack of review and evaluation of prevention-oriented self-report questionnaires (despite client need and growing number). Presents criteria for evaluation of premarital assessment questionnaires: 1) designed for premarital audience and issues; 2) gather relevant (background and contextual, individual trait, couple homogamy and skills) and usable information; 3) easily administered (cost, distribution, completion, scoring) and wide application; 4) easily interpreted (with regard to individual or comparions group or preferred responses); 5) reliable and valid, especially predictive validity. Five instruments were critiqued on criteria 2-5 (others no longer published or not comprehensive):

1) FOCCUS (156-item, 45-min. Catholic-based [non-denominational edition used widely], English/Spanish, $10) assesses 78% of marital satisfaction (MS) predictors (not parent mental health; similarity of race, intelligence; cohabitation; status), including lifestyle expectations, personality match, personal issues, problem-solving, religion and values, finances, parenting, readiness, marriage covenant and intrfaith issues. Administration possible in couples or groups with print-out recommendations via instructor's manual. Patterns for couple study (to identify and link concerns) or counselor aids on individual items. Follow-up 14-item questionnaire/planning guide, "FOCCUS for the Future." Internal consistency scale reliabilities are high (.86-.98) and construct validity sound; predictive validity 80% after 5 years. Strengths include Spanish version, ease of administration and interpretation, remarriage items, supplemental materials. Concerns include omission of six marital quality (MQ) indicators and of reliability/validity data. Providers have access to bibliography, pattern of responsibility, individual items to identify trouble spots, discuss, and encourage changes and training options including one-day seminar or video.

2) Cleveland Diocese Evaluation for Marriage (275-item, 45-60 min. Catholic-based [with wider use], English/ Spanish/Italian/Slovenian, $15) to validate stable marriages, identify conflict, assess readiness with couple. Ten areas addressed, based on Catholic principles: religious attitudes, marital readiness, communication, adjustment, role expectations, attitudes toward children and parenting, sexual adjustment, extended family attitudes, growth orientation, money values (81% of MS predictors). Validity scales (adapted from MMPI) measure distortion. Non-preferred responses in questionnaire aid reflection on tough issues; critical statements (of belief, feeling, attitude) target couple concerns. Reliabilities not reported in instructor's manual, but range from .78-.81 as reported by author (who also asserts content validity). Strengths of CDEM include language availability, comprehensiveness, validity scales, thorough guidelines, and easy administration/interpretation. Length and unpublished reliability/validity are concerns. Pre-review of print-out, structured discussion, and plan for marriage counseling are recommended.

3) PREP-for-Marriage (204-item, 45-60 min., BTU Marriage Study Consortium [+non-denominational package], $8) usable with non-dating, classroom (via random pairing) assessment covers: 1) couple unity (values, attitudes, beliefs); 2) personal readiness; 3) partner readiness; 4) couple readiness; 5) background and home environment (96% of MS predictors; not status). PREP-M print-out of results (+interpretative booklet/videotape) usable by couple and/or counselor to focus on: attitude unity on family, money, premarital sex, religion, female employment, autonomy, morality, family planning, roles, with male/female views of self, relationship, expectations, and comparions following the summary. Reliabilities range from .64-.88 (.71 average); predictive validity (stability and satisfaction) is strong. Strengths of instrument include cost and comprehensiveness, use in varied settings, easy administration/interpretation, rigorous reliability and validity checks. Lack of insructor manual and remarriage items are concerns. Lack of guidelines for interpretation not problematic; discussion possibilities endless; referral procedure suggested.

4) PREmarital Personal and Relationship Evaluation (125-item, 30-45 min, education/therapy survey; $25 [with version for married couples]) was designed to identify relationship strengths and work areas in realistic expectations, personality, communication, conflict resolution, financial management, leisure, sex, children and parenting, family and friends, equalitarian roles, religious orientation, with idealistic distortion scale for social desirability, Circumplex cohesion and adaptability (85% of MS predictors; not parent mental health, similar intelligence or status, or premarital sex attitudes). Instructor Guide included. Couple Profile print-out graphically and numerically represents male and female scores and interprets each (with reference to MS comparison group). Counselor feedback form aids provider in organization and summarizing information; booklet "Building a Strong Marriage" aids discussion, teaching. Internal consistency reliabilities range from .64 to .85 (test-retest mean alpha = .73). Predictive validity for stability, satisfaction is 80-90%. Day-long training workshops or self-training manual/video required for use. Strengths include brevity with comprehensiveness, ease of administration/interpretation, strong reliability/validity, supplemental materials, and version for remarrying couples. Concerns include cost and lack of four MS predictor items. Counselor Feedback sessions aimed at 1) couple exploration of strengths and growth areas; 2) conflict resolution; 3) aid discussion of family-of-origin (Relationship Map); 4) motivates relationship improvement. Provider-couple dialogue is a critical feature of effective PREPARE use. Booklet includes communication exercises (with issues applications), guide for use of Family Map, 10 steps for couple conflict resolution and reference to other resources.

5) Premarital Inventory Profile (140-item [+30 background items], 30-45 min., Christian counselor/clergy-based, $14) tapping similarity of interests, role expectations, personal adjustment, communication, religiosity, marital expectations, family-of-origin issues, finances, children, sexuality, anger, chemical use, commitment (78% of MS predictors; not parent mental health, class, friend support, similarity of intelligence or status, or cohabitation). Inconsistencies in question format (items on self, other, relationship, etc.) may confuse couple, provider. Exact agreement with norm is only basis for couple agreement. Extensive instructor's manual, couple workbook. Internal consistency reliabilities range from .64-.79; evidence of construct validity. Strengths include brevity, ease of administration/interpretion, deetailed manuals and materials. Concerns include shifting question focus, missing predictors, limited support for preferred responses, no remarriage items. PMIP biographical, couple agreement scores as well as individual items offer focus for counselor-couple discussion. Interrelational categories (themes/issues through survey) and instruction on counseling allow for specific focus with couple.

The most psychometrically sound instruments are PREPARE, PREP-M, and FOCCUS. More research on validity and reliability across time and populations is needed. PREPARE and FOCCUS are best for premarital counseling; PREP-M is best for classroom use. Recommendations for revision: include expanding numbers of predictive factors. Concludes with advice to examine coverage, psychometrics, survey length and cost, values of survey and subjects.

PREPARE

Fowers, Blaine J.; & Olson, David H. (1986). Predicting marital success with PREPARE: A predictive validity study. Journal of Marital and Family Therapy, 12, (4), 403-413.

Points to lack of: (1) valid, reliable inventories, (2) information on couple needs, and (3) theory in PMP. PREPARE is a 125-item inventory of engaged couples' relationship strengths and "work areas:" Realistic Expectations, Personality Issues, Communication, Conflict Resolution, Financial Management, Leisure Activities, Sexual Relationship, Children and Marriage, Family and Friends, Equalitarian Roles, Religious Orientation, Idealistic Distortion. Scale provides individual scores (and scores adjusted for idealistic distortion) and couple consensus scores on all areas. Concurrent validity was established by comparisons to Inventory of Marital Conflict (Olson, Druckman, & Fournier, 1979), Family Environment Scale (Moos & Moos, 1976), and Locke-Wallace (1959) MAT, with 106/129 directional predictions confirmed. Overall alpha reliability averaged .70; test-retest averaged .78. A purposive sample of 164 couples (in married/satisfied, married/dissatisfied, cancelled, and divorced categories) who had taken PREPARE premaritally were nominated by clergy for the predictive validity study. Couples married 1-3 years completed Idealistic Distortion and Marital Satisfaction (couple MS used for group membership) segments of ENRICH inventory, at request of clergy, with a 45% return rate. Significant differences were found in 8 of 11 categories (not financial mgt., children and marriage, or roles), with a significant linear trend for 8 areas (married/satisfied had least disagreements). Significant differences between satisfied and divorced couples were located on 10/11 comparative tests, between satisfied and dissatisfied on 6/11 categories. Satisfied and cancelled/delayed marriage couples had significantly different scores on 7/11 items. No differences were found among non-satisfied couples. Discriminant analyses of individual scores distinguished between satisfied and divorced couples in 81% of cases; satisfied and unsatisfied in 79%; satisfied and cancelled in 78%, with combined indiv/couple scores predicting with similar or higher accuracy. Discussion points to capacity to identify seeds of distress before marriage, as indicated in couple agreement. States value of PREPARE as a basis for recommendation (general, not specific couple) not to marry, lengthen engagement period, or seek professional skill-building help. Authors point to need to examine a broader sample to cross-validate findings.

Larson, Andrea S.; & Olson, David H. (1989). Predicting marital satisfaction using PREPARE: A replication study. Journal of Marital and Family Therapy, 15, (3), 311-322.

Presents inventories and program for PREmarital Personal and Relationship Evaluation/marriage enrichment for use with a variety of counselors. Provides: (1) Introduction to inventories, manual, explaining value of each for couples and counselors; (2) Overview of Inventories: (a) as first step in assisting premarital couples with (PREPARE-MC, 1981) and without children (PREPARE, 1979) or after marriage (ENRICH, 1981; Marital Satisfaction/Cohesion/Adaptability scales from Circumplex Model) on identifying and discussing 12 issues, strengths, and growth areas for individuals and couples, built on 3 previous scales and validation (Fournier, 1979; Fowers and Olson, 1986); (b) brief overview of research studies; (c) appropriate (information; initial assessment; facilitating discussion of strengths, growth areas; identifying problematic areas) and inappropriate uses (prediction for specific couples; replacing clinical judgments; "passing" or "failing;" distribution of computer results to couple) of inventories; (d) rationale for payment (couple investment in selves, counseling); (e) use of PREPARE and ENRICH in group setting (with initial feedback to couple alone or integrated into sessions) over 1) several weeks or 2) one week-end; (f) introducing program to a congregation; (3) Administration of Inventories detailed step-by-step: (I) Initial Assessment; (II) Organizing Inventory Materials; (III) Administering Inventory; (IV) Organizing Feedback; (V) Giving Feedback to Couple; notes background items differences among 3 forms; provides samples and practice; (4) Overview of Computer Report on couple responses; (5) Couple Profile summarizing individual revised percentage scores (M/F rel.satisf./category, corrected for Idealistic Distortion) and positive couple agreement scores (10 positive items) and interpretations; explanation of Idealistic Distortion (modified Edwards Marital Conventionalization, 1967: items dispersed across inventories; idealistic-realistic continuum); Egalitarian Roles, Adaptability and Cohesion Categories interpretation; excellent rehearsal of sample discussion; (6) Item Summary, describing (a) Disagreement Items (by 2 or more points); (b) Special Focus (couple agreement on item as problem); (c) Indecision Items (1 partner indecisive; other close-to or also indecisive); (d) Positive Couple Agreement Items & sample; (7) Perceptions of Family-of-Origin (PREPARE) and Type-of-Marriage (ENRICH), plotted into a Family Map or Couple Map (procedures for explaining on Counselor Feedback Form, Building a Strong Marriage book) and discussed in light of desired type; (8) Counselor Feedback Form

Olson, David H.; Fournier, David G.; & Druckman, Joan M. (1989). PREPARE-ENRICH counselors' manual, Revised. Minneapolis: PREPARE-ENRICH.

Presents inventories and program for PREmarital Personal And Relationship Evaluation/marriage enrichment for use with a variety of counselors. Provides:

(1) Introduction to inventories, manual, explaining value of each for couples and counselors;

(2) Overview of Inventories: (a) as first step in assisting premarital couples with (PREPARE-MC, 1981) and without children (PREPARE, 1979) or after marriage (ENRICH, 1981; Marital Satisfaction/Cohesion/Adaptability scales from Circumplex Model) on identifying and discussing 12 issues, strengths, and growth areas for individuals and couples, built on 3 previous scales and validation (Fournier, 1979; Fowers and Olson, 1986); (b) brief overview of research studies; (c) appropriate (information; initial assessment; facilitating discussion of strengths, growth areas; identifying problematic areas) and inappropriate uses (prediction for specific couples; replacing clinical judgments; "passing" or "failing;" distribution of computer results to couple) of inventories; (d) rationale for payment (couple investment in selves, counseling); (e) use of PREPARE and ENRICH in group setting (with initial feedback to couple alone or integrated into sessions) over 1) several weeks or 2) one week-end; (f) introducing program to a congregation;

(3) Administration of Inventories detailed step-by-step: (I) Initial Assessment; (II) Organizing Inventory Materials; (III) Administering Inventory; (IV) Organizing Feedback; (V) Giving Feedback to Couple; notes background items differences among 3 forms; provides samples and practice; (4) Overview of Computer Report on couple responses; (5) Couple Profile summarizing individual revised percentage scores (M/F rel.satisf./category, corrected for Idealistic Distortion) and positive couple agreement scores (10 positive items) and interpretations; explanation of Idealistic Distortion (modified Edwards Marital Conventionalization, 1967: items dispersed across inventories; idealistic-realistic continuum); Egalitarian Roles, Adaptability and Cohesion Categories interpretation; excellent rehearsal of sample discussion; (6) Item Summary, describing (a) Disagreement Items (by 2 or more points); (b) Special Focus (couple agreement on item as problem); (c) Indecision Items (1 partner indecisive; other close-to or also indecisive); (d) Positive Couple Agreement Items & sample; (7) Perceptions of Family-of-Origin (PREPARE) and Type-of-Marriage (ENRICH), plotted into a Family Map or Couple Map (procedures for explaining on Counselor Feedback Form, Building a Strong Marriage book) and discussed in light of desired type; (8) Counselor Feedback Form PREP-M

PREP-M

Holman, Thomas B., Larson, Jeffry, & Harmer, Stacy L. (1994). The development and predictive validity of a new premarital assessment instrument. Family Relations, 43, (1), 46-52.

The 178-item PREParation for Marriage Questionnaire (PREP-M) developed for classroom and group marriage preparation settings from social exchange and symbolic interactionist theory and research on marital satisfaction/stability (Lewis & Spanier, 1979; Smith 1990, and others), with extensive pilot-testing of college, military, and other young adult audiences (mostly LDS) and consultation with users and professionals. The 178-item assessment taps five readiness areas: 1) Couple Unity in Values, Attitudes, and Beliefs (importance of money, religion, morality, privacy; Attitudes toward premarital sex, wife/mother employment, familyplanning/contraception, marital role expectations); 2) Personal Readiness (emotional health, emotional maturity, empathic communication behavior, self-disclosure, self-esteem- drug abstinence, independence from family-of-origin, overall readiness for marriage, age, religious activity); 3) Partner Readiness on factors cited under [2]); 4) Couple Readiness (couple agreement, relationship stability, approval of significant others, realistic expectations, and items on marital fidelity, courtship abuse, months engaged, compatability with in-laws, similar mental abilities, savings or debts, relationship satisfaction, and premarital pregnancy); 5) Background and Home Environment (satisfaction with home environment, quality of home environment, quality of parent-child relationship, frequencies of significant stressor events, physical abuse, and sexual abuse). Alpha reliabilities for scales (based on 5149 responses) were: Couple Unity = .64; Personal Readiness = .88; Partner Readiness = .88; Couple Readiness = .80; Background/Home Environment = .80; Overall = .83. Prospective predictive validity (premarital PREP-M scores w/post-test modified Marital Comparison Level Index [Sabatelli, 1984] and modified Marital Instability Scale [Booth, Johnson, & Edwards, 1983]) with 206 individuals (103 couples), ages 17-48 (X = 22), 80% Mormon, from across the USA. At post-test, 91 couples had married (avg.=12 mo.), 18 cancelled or delayed (93% responded). PREP-M scores did predict satisfaction (43/44 correlated as predicted, 59% sig.); husbands scores more highly correlated w/satisfaction (r = .44) and stability (r = .34) than wives (r = .23, .20); scores were as likely to predict partner criterion variables as own; scores were more highly related to satisfaction than stability. REP-M scores of individuals in highly satisfying and stable marriages were significantly higher than those least satisfying/cancelled-delayed, supporting its concurrent predictive validity. Implications suggest further longitudinal research with more varied samples, detailed analysis of subscales, with couple as unit of investigation; provider use of PREP-M graphic printout to discuss self, partner, and normative responses on value and attitude areas (w/more detailed printout optional), and classroom use of PREP-M as personalized teaching tool, mini-research project. Advantages of lower-cost, user-friendly summary, provider questions options, data storage, and researcher access to data for further analyses are discussed.

Premarital Education Program

Provider Needs--Bibliography

Training and resource needs and status, policies and practices of community-based marriage educators.

Jones, Eric F., & Stahmann, Robert F. (1994). Clergy beliefs, preparation, and practice in premarital counseling. The Journal of Pastoral Counseling, 48, (2), 181-186.

Most, Robert.; & Guerney, Bernard G. Jr. (1983). An empirical evaluation of the training of volunteer lay leaders for premarital relationship enhancement. Family Relations, 32, 239-251.

Norris, Deborah. (1986). Program planning in marriage preparation. Canadian Home Economics Journal, 36 (4), 162-163.

Rolfe, David J. (1985). Developing skills and credibility in marriage preparation ministry. Pastoral Psychology, 33, (3), 161-172.

Weddle, Carl G.; & Cunningham, Jo Lynn. (1986). Role of clergy as premarital counselors. Paper presented at National Council on Family Relations Annual Conference, Dearborn, MI, November 3-7.

Premarital Education Program

Provider Needs--Annotated Bibliography

Jones, Eric F., & Stahmann, Robert F. (1994). Clergy beliefs, preparation, and practice in premarital counseling. The Journal of Pastoral Counseling, 48, (2), 181-186.

Notes family/church link in PMP, large percent of marriages by clergy, fundamentals of clergy involvement (Clinbell, 1984), but lack of information on clergy beliefs, training, and practice of PMP. Sought to 1) survey clergy beliefs about PMP roles; 2) describe practices (in light of limited training). Names of 1000 clergy selected randomly from lists of 4 Protestant groups; 239 (29%) of the 34-item self-report Qr were returned(76 Lutheran, 60 United Church of Christ, 49 Methodist, 46 Presbyterian (avg. age = 47; avg.years in ministry = 18, avergage years PMP = 17; avg. 8.1 PMCs and 8.6 weddings). Clergy indicated they were primary providers, 94% believed in required PMP (in spite of denominational ambivalence [or uncertainty about denom. position]). View 8 roles (in order, enrichment, moral teaching, education, evangelism, screening, rehearsal, and resource identification) as important (but no data on how roles enacted). Typical format was couple counseling (94%), couple education (68%), group (5%) due to small numbers of clients, belief in need for intensity. Results suggest need for PMP education in seminary.

Most, Robert.; & Guerney, Bernard G. Jr. (1983). An empirical evaluation of the training of volunteer lay leaders for premarital relationship enhancement. Family Relations, 32, 239-251.

Reviews efficacy of (1) lay leader training and (2) engaged couple program lead by lay leaders using RE premarital preventive/remedial model. RE promotes constructive communication, openly facing conflicts, resolving distressing relationship problems, mutual need satisfaction via reinforcement and social learning principles. Participants learned RE skills: Expresser, Empathic Responder; Mode-Switching; Problem/Conflict Resolution; Facilitator; Generalization and Maintenance; and Engaged Encounter issue talks, question-answer, and experiential exercises. Subjects were (1) five married lay couples in RE training; (2) 12 engaged couples participating in premarital RE training. A one-weekend per month workshop for 3 months (1) introduced and rehearsed skills to trainees, (2) offered practice and partial leadership roles, and (3) offered full responsibility for presenting RE to 12 new couples. After training, expert observers, engaged couples, and trainees ratings of trainee confidence, understanding of communication concepts, handling of problem situations, openness and empathy were significantly higher than pretraining ratings. Trainees rated the program high in relevance and usefulness, format and trainee/trainer ratio, and all modes of instruction and rehearsal. Premarital couples saw selves as above average in all RE skills and demonstrated twice as many positive response statements in hypothetical problem situations. Empathic acceptance, appropriate openness, and ability to resolve conflicts increased significantly as well. Conceptual understanding of communication concepts increased, but not significantly, paralleling results found for trainees. Engaged couples rated trainees high in confidence, enthusiasm, empathy, competence, and genuineness; experts were equally complimentary of clarity, responses to questions, transmission of principles, demonstrations of skills, supervision of participants, and overall leadership ability. Discussion focuses on evaluating and qualifying highly positive results, noting that despite forces promoting positive bias, participants' (money and energy) investment, anonymous evaluations, and consistency of results across multiple measures argue for accepting the validity of positive results. Authors recommend replication in other settings, and with other types of lay trainees.

Norris, Deborah. (1986). Program planning in marriage preparation. Canadian Home Economics Journal, 36 (4), 162-163.

Reviews gender role change context of marriage preparation and potential for learning role sharing (cites RE) and summarizes Bader, et.al.'s (1980) conflict-resolution findings. Points to need for home economists to collaborate with clergy in design, needs assessment, implementation, and evaluation of programs.

Rolfe, David J. (1985). Developing skills and credibility in marriage preparation ministry. Pastoral Psychology, 33, (3), 161-172.

Weddle, Carl G.; & Cunningham, Jo Lynn. (1986). Role of clergy as premarital counselors. Paper presented at National Council on Family Relations Annual Conference, Dearborn, MI, November 3-7.

Premarital Education Program

Evaluations--Bibliography

Prevention and Relationship Enhancement Program

Markman, Howard J.; Renick, Mari Jo; Floyd, Frank J.; Stanley, Scott M.; & Clements, Mari. (1993). Preventing marital distress through communication and conflict management training: A 4- and 5-year follow-up. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 61, (1), 70-77.

Renick, Mari Jo; Blumberg, Susan; & Markman, Howard J. (1992). The Prevention and Relationship Enhancement Program (PREP): An empirically-based preventive intervention program for couples. Family Relations, 41, (2), 141-147.

Markman, Howard J.; Floyd, Frank J.; Stanley, Scott M.; & Storaasli, Ragnar D. (1988). Prevention of marital distress: A longitudinal investigation. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 56, (2), 210-217.

Markman, Howard J. (1981). Prediction of marital distress: A five-year follow-up. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 49, (5), 760-762.

Markman, Howard J.; & Floyd, Frank J. (1980). Possibilities for the prevention of marital discord: A behavioral perspective. American Journal Family Therapy, 8, (2), 29-48.

Markman, Howard J. (1979). Application of a behavioral model of marriage in predicting relationship satisfaction of couples planning marriage. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 47, (4), 743-749.

Premarital Education Training Sequence

Bagarozzi, Dennis A.; Bagarozzi, Judith A.; Anderson, Stephen A.; & Pollane, L. (1984). Premarital education and training sequence: PETS: A three-year follow-up of an experimental study. Journal of Counseling and Development, 63, (2), 91-100.

Relationship Enhancement Model

Avery, Arthur W., Ridley, Carl A.; Leslie, Leigh A.; & Handis, M. (1979). Teaching family relations to dating couples versus non couples: Who learns better? The Family Coordinator, 28, (1), 41-45.

Avery, Arthur W.; Ridley, Carl A.; Leslie, Leigh A.; & Milholland, Tom. (1980). Relationship enhancement with premarital dyads: A six-month follow-up. American Journal of Family Therapy, 3, (8), 23-30.

D'Augelli, A.; Deyss, C.; Guerney, B.G. Jr.; Hershenberg, B.; & Sbordesky, S. (1974). Interpersonal skills training for dating couples: An evaluation of an educational mental health service. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 21, 385-389.

Ginsberg, Barry G. (1977). Premarital relationship improvement by maximizing empathy and self-disclosure: The PRIMES program. In B.G. Guerney, Jr. (Ed.). Relationship enhancement, pp. 268-288, San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Heitland, William. (1986). An experimental communication program for premarital dating couples. The School Counselor, 57-61.

Ridley, Carl A.; Avery, Arthur W.; Harrell, Jan E.; Haynes-Clements, Lynda A.; & McCunney, N. (1981). Mutual problem solving skills training for premarital couples: A six-month follow-up. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 2, (1), 179-188.

Ridley, Carl A.; Avery, Arthur W.; Harrell, Jan E.; Leslie, Leigh A.; & Dent, Judy. (1981). Conflict management: A premarital training program in mutual problem solving. American Journal of Family Therapy, 9, (4), 23-32.

Ridley, C.A.; & Bain, A.B. (1983). The effects of a premarital relationship enhancement program on self-disclosure. Family Therapy, 1, (10), 13-24.

Ridley, Carl A.; Lamke, Leanne K.; Avery, Arthur W.; & Harrell, Jan E. (1982). The effects of interpersonal skills training on sex-role identity of premarital dating partners. Journal of Research in Personality, 16, 335-342.

Ridley, Carl A.; Jorgensen, Stephen R.; Morgan, Anita C.; & Avery, Arthur W. (1982). Relationship enhancement with premarital couples: An assessment of effects on relationship quality. American Journal of Family Therapy, 10, (3), 41-48. (Clinical Psychologists)

Ridley, Carl A., & Sladezeck, Ingrid E. (1992). Premarital relationship enhancement: Its effects on needs to relate to others. Family Relations, 41, (2), 148-153.

British Columbia Council for the Family Model

Russell, Mary, & Lyster, Rosanne Farnden. (1992). Marriage preparation: Factors associated with consumer satisfaction. Family Relations, 41, (4), 446-451.

PREPARE/Follow-up

Nickols, Samuel A.; Fournier, David G.; & Nickols, Sharon Y. (1986). Evaluation of a preparation for marriage workshop. Family Relations, 35, (4), 563-571.

Systems

Praetorius, H.G., van Wyk, J.D., & Schepers, J.M. (1992). The evaluation of a marital preparation programme. South African Journal of Psychology, 22, (3), 140-146.

Comparison: Premarital Assessment Program vs. Couples Communication

Parish, William Eddie. (1992). A quasi-experimental evaluation of the premarital assessment program for premarital counseling. Australia-New Zealand Journal of Family Therapy, 13, (1), 33-36.

Minnesota Couples Communication Program

Miller, Sherrod; Nunnally, Elam W.; & Wackman, Daniel B. (1976). A communication training program for couples. Social Casework, 57, (1), 9-18.

Miller, Sherrod; Nunnally, Elam W.; & Wackman, Daniel B. (1976). Minnesota couples communication program (MCCP): Premarital and marital groups. In D.L.H. Olson (Ed.). Treating relationships, Lake Mills, IA: Graphic Publishing Co.

Marriage and Family Class Evaluation

Stucky, Frances; Eggeman, Kenneth; Eggeman, Becky Smith; Moxley, Virginia; & Schumm, Walter R. (1986). Premarital counseling as perceived by newlywed couples: An exploratory study. Journal of Sex and Marital Therapy, 12 (3), 221-228.

Laner, Mary Riege; & Russell, J. Neil. (1994). Course content and change in students: Are marital expectations altered by marrriage education? Teaching Sociology, 22, (1), 10-18.

Pino, Christopher. (1982). Development and assessment of personalized programs for marriage preparation and enrichment. Family Perspectives, 16 (1), 33 - 39.

Canadian Experiment

Bader, Edward; Microys, Gisele; Sinclair, Carole; Willett, Elizabeth; & Conway, Brenda. (1980). Do marriage preparation programs really work? A Canadian experiment. Journal of Marital and Family Therapy, 6, (2), 171-179.

Catholic Marriage Preparation

Center for Marriage and Family. (1995). Marriage preparation in the Catholic Church: Getting it right. Omaha, NE: Center for Marriage and Family, University College, Creighton University.

Premarital Counseling for Minors

Rolfe, David; & Roosa, Mark. (1979). Court-ordered evaluation of young teenage applicants for marriage licenses: Follow-up of a pilot study. Conciliation Courts Review, 17, (2), 25-29.

Premarital Education Program

Evaluations--Annotated Bibliography

Prevention and Relationship Enhancement Program

Opens with rationale (rates, risks of divorce, potential for intervention) and review of earlier reports. Subjects were 114 couples in first-time marriages (T1: avg.23 yrs./F, 24 yrs./M, 15.5yrs education, $10.5 avg. income, 80% sexually active/39% cohabiting), recruited via ads and referrals and paid for participation. Preassessment ranked couples on 4 matching variables predictive of stability and satisfaction: 1) engaged vs. planning marriage; 2) relationship satisfaction; 3) communication impact ratings; 4) confidence in marriage. PREP program offered to 85 couples (33 completed; 43 declined; 9 partially completed), with 50 control couples. Follow-up (FU) compared program completers with decliners and control groups (FU2: 25/42/47; FU3: 15/24/14; FU4: 12/18/17) on Locke-Wallace MAT, 10-area Relationship Problem Inventory, Conflict Tactics Scale, and Interaction Dimension Coding System observations.

Preassessments included two 2-hr. sessions of interviews, questionnaires, 10-15 min. problem solving task video; program involved 5 sessions, 3 hrs. each plus homework of cognitive-behavioral therapy and marriage enrichment skills. Post assessment (T1: 8-10 wks.) and follow-ups (FU2: 1.5, FU3: 3, FU4: 4, and FU5: 5 yrs.) employed questionnaire and interaction tasks.

Relationship stability analysis found significant differences among 3 couple groups at FU3 and FU4 on breakup before marriage, with rates of 4/4%, 21/25%, and 26.2/26.2% respectively at T3 and T4. Divorce/separation rates were not statistically distinct, but trends for lower rates favored intervention couples. Tests of relationship satisfaction found significant group (interv/decl) x gender interaction FU3 (interv husbands, but not wives had higher MS). MANCOVAs on couple interaction, FU1 and FU3, were significant; univariate tests T1 found intervention group couples had higher support/validation, positive affect, positive escalation than control, but not decline couples. At FU1 intervention couples showed greater use of commnunication skill and problem solving vs. control, but not decline couples. At FU2, the same groups were significantly different on support/ validation and positive communication (N.S. for intervention and decline groups). At FU45, intervention couples scored significantly higher than controls on communication, positive affect, problem solving, support/ validation, and positive escalation vs. control couples and communication skills, support/validation, positive affect, and overall positive communication vs. decline couples. MANCOVA at FU4 was n.s., but univariate tests showed intervention couples retained greater communication skill vs. control and decline couples. Intervention males, but not females, gained significantly over peers. MANCOVA on negative communication were significant only at FU3. At post-assessment (T1), intervention couples showed less conflict negative communication vs. control group. Interaction tests found intervention (but not control) females lower in dominance vs. partners. Intervention couples showed less withdrawal, denial, and conflict, and negative communication relative to decline couples. At F1, intervention and decline couple scores on negative communication were the only significant difference. At F2, less withdrawal, negative affect, and better communication was evident for intervention vs. control couples, but results were not statistically different than decline couples. Intervention couples had significantly lower withdrawal, negative affect, and negative communication than to control and decline couples; lower denial, conflict, than control couples. At F4, only a trend for less negative escalation in intervention couples vs. controls was apparent. Although physical violence rates were low overall, intervention couples FU2-4 had significantly lower rates than controls.

Discussion focuses on extended benefits of intensive, skill-based intervention with healthy functioning couples for confidence (esp. w/r decline couples) and competence in marriage. Weakening effects by FU4 are interpreted in terms of Jacobson's behavioral marital therapy benefit model. Researchers argue that accrued benefits provide internal motivation to change. Research limitations such as selection and attrition effects acknowledged.

Renick, Mari Jo; Blumberg, Susan; & Markman, Howard J. (1992). The Prevention and Relationship Enhancement Program (PREP): An empirically-based preventive intervention program for couples. Family Relations, 41, (2), 141-147.

Notes negative effects of marital distress and divorce and overviews the programming research foundations of PREP, a primary prevention psychoeducational program to prevent distress through teaching constructive handling of disagreements. Provides history and rationale for PREP (communication and problem solving skills training to enhance marital satisfaction) vs. MCCP (self-awareness and communication skills training) and RE (self-disclosure, empathy-skills training). Notes PREP formats: 1) weekly (6- 2 1/2 hr. w/4-8 couples) and 2) one weekend w/20-40 couples, each w/lectures, pair (coached) practice, and consultation; and adaptations (i.e., indiv. clergy/couple) and additional material (i.e., developmental model) for motivated couples (i.e., doesn't assume/require universal participation). Previews PREP sessions: 1) flow & structure (expectations, content, leaders; lecture on research base, gender roles in communication, intent-impact model); 2) skills for effective speaking, listening); 3) destructive and constructive communication; 4) expectations about communication; 5) expectations and hidden agendas; 6) relationship maintenance and stability; 7) problem solving (emphasizing discovery and solution); 8) team-building, increasing intimacy and commitment; 9-10) spiritual values and beliefs (depending on needs of couple; honor, respect, intimacy, forgiveness; impact of spiritual values on relationship); 11) enhancement, maintenance, improving communication about the physical relationship; 12) engaging the skills in practice.

Describes 10-year longitudinal research (135 couples recruited [85 selected, 50 controls) and classes by relationship status, then randomly selected to participate in PREP). Analyses on 20 PREP, 24 control subjects presented. Measures included self-report (Locke-Wallace Marital Adjustment Test, Relationship Problems Inventory, Conflict Tactics Scale, sexual satisfaction scale from Snyder's Marital Satisfaction scale); communication (Couples Interaction Scoring System [microanalytic scale], Interaction Dimensions Coding System [obs.global interaction], Communication Box [partner perceptions], and Communication Skill Test [obs. of skill competence after program]). Observations of videotapes (marital and family problem solving) as well as surveys were incorporated in research procedures.

Results revealed: 1) Relationship Stability at 5 years was higher for participants (8% separated or divorced) vs. controls (16%); 2) Short Term Effects (communication, pre/post) favored participants; 3) Long Term Effects (rel.satisf., impact of communication, rel.problems sig.better for participants at 1 1/2 years; rel.satisf higher while sexual problems, problem intensity lower for participants at 3 years); Actual Communication (lower negative communication [conflict, denial, negative affect] for participants at 3 years) and fewer instances of dominance, conflict, overall negative communication and more use of communication skills at 4 years; less negative escalation by PREP husbands [but not wives] at 5 years; less physical violence at 5 years); Marital Satisfaction sig. higher for PREP husbands at 4 and 5 years. Found no evidence for selection effects.

A comparison study with an Engaged Encounter group (24 recruited engaged couples), using the same instruments, found: 1) PREP couples increased overall in positive communication, problem solving and support-validation vis-a-vis EE couples at 2 mo. follow-up; males (esp. in PREP) rated themselves as more dedicated than females, although females' dedication to the relationship increased over time. A German version, EPL (conducted by the Catholic Church and German government) replicated short-term results reported above, w/ a short-term weekend version producing comparable results to a 6-week format.

Other PREP sites (Pre-Cana programs in NY, Netherlands, Univ. of North Carolina, Archdiocese of Washington DC, and US Navy) are discussed.

Presents results of a treatment/control-group study of PREP effects following training, at 1 1/2 and 3 years. Matched, randomly-assigned couples (N = 21 each) were assessed via self report (adapted Locke-Wallace [1959] Marital Adjustment Test; Knox [1971] Relationship Problems Inventory; Sexual Dissatisfaction Scale adapted from Snyder, [1979]), partner ratings (Markman & Floyd [1980] Communication Box), and observational measures (Floyd & Markman [1984] Communication Skill videotape evaluation). Treatment consisted of 5 3-hour couple/small group sessions covering communications skills, problem-solving, expectations, sexuality, and relationship enhancement. Control group couples had lower relationship stability. Multivariate analyses of covariance (Group X Sex X Time) indicated no significant effects for satisfaction/problem intensity/impact variables short-term, although trends suggested smaller declines for treatment couples. Similar results were found at 1-1/2-year follow-up. However, a 3-year postassessment yielded a significant group effect, with significant univariate results for marital satisfaction and problem intensity, but not for partner impact ratings. A significant sex main effect was found at 3 years, with a significant univariate effect for marital satisfaction (decline greater for men). The control group's incidence of sexual problems increased at a significantly greater rate, preassessment to 1 1/2 year. Generally, differences between treatment and control couples increased over time, the former maintaining or improving premarital levels of satisfaction, relationship functioning, problem intensity, and sexual satisfaction, suggesting positive, long-term effects of preventive programming. The authors offer suggestions on reducing self-selection effects, evaluating change in communication scores, and comparing conditions and potential for change between premarital programs with non-distressed and marital therapy with distressed couples.

Markman, Howard J. (1981). Prediction of marital distress: A five-year follow-up. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 49, (5), 760-762.

Follow-up on Markman (1979) study of effects of PMC program. 9/21 couples still together at 2 1/2 yrs. indicated relationship status and MRI marital satisfaction Qr. Significant correlations found: Posttest behavior-impact and 5-yr. relationship satisfaction (r = .59), indicating predictive function of unrewarding communication (impact; seen at 1 and 2 1/2 yrs). Posttest problem intensity and relationship satisfaction were not significantly correlated with 5-yr. relationship satisfaction. Evicdence indicates communication patterns were relatively stable across 5 years of marriage. Small sample size limits generalizability. Recommends more emphasis on PM intervention (esp. skills) and need for longitudinal approach.

Markman, Howard J.; & Floyd, Frank J. (1980). Possibilities for the prevention of marital discord: A behavioral perspective. American Journal Family Therapy, 8, (2), 29-48. (Behavioral Psychologist)

Cites need for preventive programs to avoid marital distress and presents cognitive-behavioral model designed to change behavior patterns early, increasing rewarding behaviors and decreasing probability of maladaptive behaviors. Model uses identified behavioral risk factors believed more alterable than personality or demographic factors. Behavioral approach sees partner deficiencies in positive reinforcement skills (i.e., over-dependence on negative reinforcement patterns) and resulting unsuccessful problem solving as keys to marital distress. Authors point to the need for longitudinal research to confirm the causal connection between skills and distress (suggested by Rausch, et.al., 1974). Reviews Markman (1979): 26 volunteer couples assessed at pretest, 1 and 2 1/2-year posttests, found premarital communication impact strongly predictive of relationship satisfaction at T3, suggesting premarital indicators of future distress. Recommends "leaps-and-bounds" step-wise regression to identify risk factors. Procedure revealed: (1) best T2 predictors of satisfaction as T1 problem intensity, relationship satisfaction, accounting for 65% of variance (impact ratings, only 22%); (2) T3 satisfaction best predicted by T1 intensity, male impact, female impact (R-squared = 67%, not increased by T1 satisfaction), both results suggesting "early measurable signs of impending relationship dissatisfaction" which can be addressed in PMC. Reviews behavior competency model and discusses links to preventive programming (reviewed briefly). Contrasts RE (general, non-specific feeling expression) vs PREP (social skills training, marriage/therapy-relevant communication and problem-solving skills). Outlines PREP: (1) pre-assessment of communication patterns (for comparison, "hot topics," focus for program); (2) program (6 3-hr meetings) with professional leader/lecturer and trained consultant, interacting with couples. Methods include: (1) homework readings, skill practice, inventories; (2) lecturettes, reviewing topics and examples, role plays; (3) videotape feedback and modification of preassessment interaction through consultant's positive, specific feedback and modeling; (4) interactions with consultants. Program empahsizes (1) cognitive restructuring: (a) learning a language system (vocabulary for communication, metacommunication behaviors); (b) learning the behavioral model (specific acts and beliefs about them vs personality traits); (c) examining expectations, short and long-term; (d) concept of "engaging the skills" during problem times; (e) information about couples planning marriage (typical problems); (f) information about marital discord (esp. as related to communication and problem solving skills, need for prevention); (g) information about sexual functioning and dysfunction; (2) Skill acquisition: (a) active listening (summarizing other, reflecting feelings); (b) expressive speaking (expressing feelings, being specific, speaking for self); (c) behavior monitoring (observing and recording own and partner); (d) learning pleasing/displeasing behaviors; (e) making specific behavior change requests; (f) contracting for positive exchange (quid pro quo and good faith) on specific problem issues; (g) pleasuring skills. Describes test of model conducted with 10 volunteer college couples randomly assigned to experimental and control groups (1 per group dropped); 2-session assessment (using marital therapy instruments, procedures): (a) interview, video, and questionnaire (Knox, 1971: problem intensity; modified Locke-Wallace Marital Adjustment test), and consensus on top 3 problem areas and (b) 2-task negotiation using Inventory of Marital Conflicts (Olson & Ryder, 1970) and Problem Intensity Form under 2 conditions: (a) "Communication Box" (responding to partner communication); (b) unrated vignette discussion, videotaped in both instances. Postassessment included same tests (1 old, 1 new task), program evaluation, problem-area consensus. Sex X group analysis of covariance (pre/post) foiund no significant main effects or interactions on behavior measures, although treatments scored higher; (2) evaluation showed sex ed. best received, (a) awareness; (b) learning about communication; (c) learning specific techniques most beneficial, (d) lack of homework time, (e) session length as most negative aspects, with benefits great overall. Discussion focuses on lack of short-term effects, need to consider: (1) long-term goal; (2) possible inappropriateness of marital measures; (3) reasons for improvements among control couples (possibly due to preassessment); (4) need to track and document relationship development and intervention effectiveness.

Reviews behavior exchange research identifying distressed marriages: (1) more negative communication ratings; (2) more negative verbal and nonverbal behaviors; (3) more problems, leading to cycles of unrewarding marital interaction and justifying therapy programs to enhance abilities to reward. Notes need to test theory longitudinally. Study examined 26 volunteer college couples planning marriage (avg age = 20.3; avg. courtship = 32.2 mo.) assessed before program (T1) and at 1 (T2) and 2 1/2 yr. (T3) follow-ups. Initial assessment included interviews with trained M/F teams on: (1) problem intensity (Knox, 1971); (2) relationship satisfaction (modified Locke MRI); (3) consensus on problem areas; (4) history of relationship; (5) "Talk table" (Gottman, et.al., 1976) involving negotiation of 5 hypothetical communication tasks (on food, marital conflict, sex knowledge, personal problems) with subsequent intended and actual impact ratings. Mail follow-ups assessed relationship status and satisfaction for couples still together (23 after 1 yr; 21 at 2 1/2; 14 sets of complete data). Results (based on combined tasks and couple scores): (1) revealed significant correlations between T1 problem intensity and T2 satisfaction (r = -.47) and between T1 and T2 satisfaction (r = .82), but no association between T1 impact ratings and T2 satisfaction, indicating a continuity of unrewarding exchange pre-to-postmarital settings; (2) non-significant correlations between T1 problem intensity or T1 satisfaction and T3 satisfaction, but a highly significant correlation between T1 impact ratings and T3 satisfaction (r = .67), suggesting that unrewarding communication precedes development of dissatisfaction; (3) MANOVA (impact = D.V.; non/distressed rel. status as I.V.) indicated T1 impact ratings did not discriminate between satisfied and unsatisfied at T2 but did at T3 for both males and females: "dissatisfied couples at T3 were more likely to rate their partner's communications as negative and less likely to rate their partner's communications as super positive at T1 than were satisfied couples." Discussion reiterates predictive powers of unrewarding interaction patterns (beyond satisfaction) implying: (1) cross-sectional indicators of distressed/non-distressed interactional differences not simply short-term unhappiness; (2) premarital deficits might be mediated by (exchange or communication) skills training; (3) premarirtal deficits can cause marital distress; (4) positive reinforcement less frequent, aversive control more frequent for dissatisfied couples, although such patterns may take 1-2 1/2 years to affect relationship satisfaction. Study limitations: (1) need for replication; (2) student/size affects generalizability; (3) incomplete data (probably not different from sample); (4) couples with children (T2, T3) not analyzed separately; (5) "talk table" topics may not be representative. Additional longitudinal tests recommended.

Premarital Education Training Sequence

Reviews trends of PMC following (not citing) Schumm & Denton; echoes Bagarozzi & Rauen (1981) in noting appropriateness of program contents, overview and critique, relevance of program goals. Pilot study reported used family system and developmental task theories to focus couples on: (1) communication (equitable, non-punishing exchange; non-coercive negotiation) and problem-solving skill training (contracting) and readiness topics (roles, finances, sex, in-laws, friends, recreation, parenting, and religion); (2) structured tasks, exercises, and homework to help couples resolve differences and discuss unverbalized expectations; (3) opportunity to reevaluate marriage decision. PETS was 6-week, 2-hr/week group training (M/F cotraining team), using live and video models, supervised practice, homework exercises, booster sessions (reviewing prior session skills) designed for couples to proceed at own pace. Session foci: functional communication (in 8 readiness areas) to facilitate negotiation, using problem-solving paradigm [1: identify problem areas; 2: behavioral contributions of partners; 3: examine unverbalized exchange components of problem behaviors; 4: assess attributions of malintent related to problems; 5: use cognitive restructuring; 6: discuss violations calmly; 7: discuss alternate solutions; 8: select behavioral solution; 9: contract]. Study randomly assigned 18 white middle class volunteer couples approaching first marriage to training or no-activity control groups. All were pretested (3-5 days before), posttested (3-5 days after), and 15 were followed up (3 yrs after) using 4 self-report and 1 observational measures. Results (repeated measures analysis of variance): (1) Irrational Beliefs (Jones, 1968) of treatment group lower at posttest, same level (higher than controls) at 3 yrs; (2) N.S. differences on exchange orientation (Exchange Attitude Qr: Murstein, Cerreto, & MacDonald, 1977), but significant treatment X time interaction for commitment (Commitment Scale: Murstein & MacDonald, 1977), with decrease for treatment at posttest (much higher at follow-up); and increase for control at posttest (follow-up same as pretest); (3) no significant differences on social exchange perceptions (Spousal Inventory of Desired Changes and Relationship Barriers (SIDCARB I: satisfaction with fairness, equity; II: will to separate) but significant differences on III: (external barriers), with treatment group decreasing and controls increasing over time; (4) N.S. differences in Marital Interaction Coding System (Weiss, 1976) (pre & post) video observations (of punishing, rewarding, and neutral problem solving discussion behaviors), although treatment couples tended to be more rewarding, controls less rewarding over time; (5) no impact on decision to marry. Discussion notes PETS mostly immediate impact, hastening ordinary adjustment processes under best conditions. Treatment period may be too short. External barriers reduced, but commitment strengthened, and communication/ problem solving skills increased for treatment group. Didactic approach, with humor, and couple leaders well received.

Relationship Enhancement Model

Avery, Arthur W., Ridley, Carl A.; Leslie, Leigh A.; & Handis, M. (1979). Teaching family relations to dating couples versus non couples: Who learns better? The Family Coordinator, 28, (1), 41-45.

Study comparing two family relations class formats. Reviews purposes of FLE. Compared 9 dating couples (ages 17-23 years) to 28 non-couple individuals (18-25 years) equivalent on several variables and taught by the same teacher over a 15-week semester. Knowledge test (KR reliability = .80), attitudes and habits questionnaires on final class day, analyzed via analysis of variance, revealed: 1) couples group significantly higher on the comprehensive final examination (p < .01; no sex or sex X treat-ment effects); 2) significant differences on each of 4 attitude variables: a) study habits; b) motivation; c) interest; and d) relevancy of material (all at the p < .01 level; no sex or sex X treatment effects). Discussion focuses on potential for couples course 1) knowledge to reduce idealization; 2) involvement to increase couple interaction time; 3) format to promote open communication (opening up issues). Suggests extension of approach to research on effects on couples' relationship satisfaction, parent-teen, and long-term relationship-building. rges examination of a variety of materials to a variety of stages of relationship development.

Avery, Arthur W.; Ridley, Carl A.; Leslie, Leigh A.; & Milholland, Tom. (1980). Relationship enhancement with premarital dyads: A six-month follow-up. American Journal of Family Therapy, 3, (8), 23-30.

Examines long-term effectiveness of 8-week (3-hr/wk) RE (Guerney, 1977) self-disclosure/empathy training with 19 volunteer dating couples (76% pre/post/follow-up) vs same length lecture/ discussion (LD) option for control group of 18 couples (62% in pre/post/follow-up). Initial Behavior Assessment of communication (Schlein, 1971) focused on Self Feeling Awareness and Acceptance of Other (Guerney, 1977). LD involved group review of relationship development while RE used didactic, demonstration, and supervised practice (with 5-mo. 1-hr. "booster" for half, randomly selected). Groups not significantly different on pretests. Repeated measures analysis of variance indicated both signficant group and individual differences on disclosure from pre- to post-test and follow-up; although pre-test/follow-up indicated a decrease for RE, no change for LD. Repeated measures tests of empathy identified significant group, time, and group-by-time effects. Post-hoc t-tests found significant increases in RE (but not LD) empathic ability pre/post, pre/follow-up, but decreases for RE (LD same) post/follow-up. No significant differences were found in comparisons of RE booster and non-booster disclosure and empathy. Authors argue skill levels remained high but were bound to decrease some without continuous practice. Discussion focuses on: (1) long-term effectiveness evidence; (2) avoidance of methodological problems; (3) use of same rating scales throughout; (4) "phase in" of couple self-monitoring to avoid trainer dependency. Further research recommendations: (1) examination of daily skill use; (2) effects of training on satisfaction, adjustment; (3) generalization of skills to other relations; (4) long-term effectiveness with marital couples or parents and children.

Study was a secondary analysis of Schlein's (1971) RE 10-week PM communication program. Review's Schlein (48 dating couples, with experimental group in supervised practice of structured empathy, feeling acceptance, honest expression skills [speaker, listener]. Verbal rating scales different from Schlein, rated by trained, blind video reviewers. Results revealed: (1) high correlation between Empathy and Respect and Empathy and Immediacy scales (Carkhuff, 1969; empathy retained). Analysis of variance (group X time) and LSD post-hoc procedures detected: (1) empathy significant main effects for group (treatment group higher), time (posttest higher), interaction (treatment postest higher); (2) significant condition, time, interaction effects for self-exploration; (3) no significant sex differences. Discussion focuses on improvement of couples to typical competent helper levels, treatment group self-perception and observed improvement on acceptance, awareness, and satisfaction. Recommends educational approach for mental health centers, using structured program with other age and SES groups, with long-term evaluation.

Reviews RE educational/preventive Premarital Relationships Improvement by Maximizing Empathy and Self-disclosure program providing "...a way of teaching complex and sophisticated interpersonal skills to premarital couples in order to facilitate the present relationship and to increase potential for future marital and family growth." Notes lack of research on relationship development, Lewis (1972) model of mate selection, significance of marital communication for satisfaction. Program initiated with introductory review, skill demonstration, couple option to join, ask questions. 8-12 (2 1/2-hr/wk) session schedule: (1) introductions; program overview; practice of empathic, expresser skills with non-partners, general topics, reinforced/ aided by group leader; (2) practice expresser, empathic responder skills/ roles with partner with non-relationship topics; (3 and after) skill practice with positive relationship issues, moving on to expectations, problems, conflicts as identified in Relationship Questionnaire (strengths, weaknesses) completed before program, reviewed at end of session 2; leader assists practice via structuring, modeling, social reinforcement (learning theory); facilitators (other group members) "give social reinforcement, suggest mode switches, control limits of roles for active couple; homework practice (1 hr/wk) with day-to-day topics (evaluated each week, reviewed at start of each session). Offers excerpts of skill practice from 5th and 7th sessions. Reviews Schlein (1971) study which advertised PRIMES (as service/research to teach interpersonal skills to daters) via letters, posters, announcements, news articles, individual contacts on college campus. 21 couples randomly assigned to experimental (6 dropped), 27 to waiting-list group. Participants' avg age = 19.8; middle class, all but 1 white. Initial screening included: (1) interview; (2) questionnaires; (3) 20-min taped Verbal Interaction Task on desired change in self, partner, using expresser/responder format. Post-tests on same measures/both groups at 10 weeks. All but 2 groups led by 2 graduate students; consulted every 2 weeks with experimenter. Preliminary analyses indicated many moderate, significant, relationships between variables; no gender differences except females' higher Self-Feeling Awareness on pre-test; no signficant differences between groups on any variable. Results (1-tailed t-tests/gain scores): (1) Communication: RE group had significantly higher gains in empathic acceptance of partner communication and open expression of feelings (taped dialogs; same pattern for both groups, all skills, total score); non-significant trend toward better general communication patterns, as measured on self-report; (2) Relationship quality: (a) Sig. difference between groups in subjective evaluation of capacity to handle problems, pre-to-post test (controls declined; RE increased); (b) trend (N.S.) toward increased trust, intimacy for RE group on Interpersonal Relationship Scale; (c) significant difference/post-test between groups on self-perception as warm, empathic, genuine (Relationship Scale); (d) N.S. difference in partner perception; (e) both groups were more satisfied at post-testing, with RE having higher satisfaction. Discussion notes PRIMES group improvement in openness, empathy, relationship quality; need to examine demand effects, etc., comparing with other methods, comparing components. Regards gains as conservative estimates of program efficacy due to inexperience of trainers, high pre-test scores (all but communication behaviors); potential impact of introductory interview on control group. Adds positive anecdotal comments.

Ginsberg, B.; & Vogelsong, E.. (1977). Premarital relations improvement by maximizing empathy and self-disclosure: The PRIMES program. In B.G. Guerney, Jr. (Ed.). Relationship Enhancement, pp. 268-288, San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Heitland, William. (1986). An experimental communication program for premarital dating couples. The School Counselor, 57-61.

Notes need for/emergence of PMC programs and lack of systematic efforts with high school students. Presents communication/ problem solving training program for high school seniors, Premarital Relationship Effectiveness Programs (PREP), using Relationship Enhancement (Guerney, 1977) in group format with didactic lecturing and modeling and experiential exercises. Eight college (avg: 19.9 yrs) and 8 high school students (avg: 17.6 yrs) were assessed (pre and post) for: (1) trust level using Interpersonal Relationship Scale (IRS: Guerney, 1977); (2) communication effectiveness/listening, expression, problem solving with Premarital Communication Inventory (PCI: Rotter, 1967) and given high-structured 8-hr workshop on communication and problem solving. Workshop sought to develop lifelong interpersonal skills such as active listening and effective expression, with attention to how persons communicate on a range of perceived problems. Three-way repeated measures analysis of variance found: (1) no significant differences for PCI on sex or level of development, but (2) significant improvement at posttest. Notes criticism of skills training for high school (i.e., identity, not intimacy-focused) and argues that results show benefit for high school daters. Also indicates subjective interviews corroborated data. Recommends counselor establishment of PMP programs in high schools.

Ridley, Carl A.; Avery, Arthur W.; Harrell, Jan E.; Haynes-Clements, Lynda A.; & McCunney, N. (1981). Mutual problem solving skills training for premarital couples: A six-month follow-up. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 2, (1), 179-188.

Follow-up on Ridley, Avery, Harrell, & Dent (1981)in which 14 experimental (RE) and 18 control (RD) couples (59% of original sample; no differences between participants and non-participants) were given communication and problem-solving assessments 6 months after conflict-management training. Post assessment format paralleled pretest and follow-up (role play; 20-min conversation on real problem scores combined). Analysis of variance on gain scores pretest-to-follow-up indicated: 1) a significant increase in communication skills (P < .01) for PS vs RD group; 2) no sex, group X sex differences on communication skills; 3) no group X sex differences on problem-solving ability. Similar analyses on posttest-to-follow-up found 1) significant group effect on communication skills (p < .01); 2) no difference on problem solving ability; 3) no sex or group X sex differences on problem-solving ability. Discussion focuses on expected decrement in skills at follow-up and lack of evidence for "natural" increases in skills. Recommends attention to longer-term assessment, effects of training (relationship development and satisfaction), types of couples most likely to benefit.

Briefly rehearses rationale, research, client criteria (non-problem couples) for RE (self-disclosure & empathy) programs and remedial thrust in PM/marriage problem-solving programs.Presents research with volunteer college-age dating couples (avg. age 19.8) randomly assigned to problem-solving (PS: N = 26) and relationship discussion (RD: N=28) groups. Groups (3-4 couples, 1M/ 1F leader) had 8 3-hr training or discussion sessions plus readings and/or practice. PS training involved didactic explanation, demonstration, question-and-answer directed toward learning step-by-step, give-and-take PS: (1) communication skills (owning thoughts and feelings, listening and reflecting, open and closed questions) as speakers, listeners, directed toward (a) nonjudgmental expression; (b) sensitivity via accurate, concise summarizing of speaker; (c) asking more open questions; (2) defining problem in relationship terms, stating (a) if problem affected both partners; (b) if both wanted problem solved; (3) how each contributes to problem, focused on recognition of (a) mutual involvement; (b) negative interactive cycles, leading to grasp of nature of problem and intensity of feelings; (4) behavioral goal statement, from problem consensus; (5) generating alternative solutions (cooperative brainstorming); (6) evaluation of options; (7) selection of best option, with each partner's role; (8) implementation/testing of solution; (9) progress evaluation at agreed-on time. All couples videotaped discussing role-play and real problems (pre and post), problem checklist (individual) which were evaluated for: (1) "I messages," summary statements, open questions; (2-8) use of Steps 1-7 skills by 2 independent judges (interrater r = .88-.95). Results (couple scores/analysis of variance) of pretest indicated groups were not different (PS higher on Step 5; RD on Step 7; females higher on "I messages"). Group X Time X Sex analysis of variance found PS had significant increase for all skills, each PS step and for total of steps (no 3-way interactions). Discussion focuses on improvement in PS group performance in real and contrived problem situations. Groups' pretest PS skills were low (despite non-distressed status), with quick-solution pattern without mutual understanding, reflecting: (1) idealization' (2) low experience levels; (3) inadequate models. Notes readiness of PS group. Summarizes limits: (1) lab learning; (2) student sample and further research: (1) skill maintenance; (2) preventive effectiveness; (3) relation of PS to adjustment/satisfaction.

Ridley, C.A.; & Bain, A.B. (1983). The effects of a premarital relationship enhancement program on self-disclosure. Family Therapy, 1, (10), 13-24.

Reviews results of RE training effects generally and on PM empathy, relationship quality, heterosexual competence. Study purpose: examine RE trainees' willingness to disclose depth aspects to program partner, close friends, aquaintances. Final sample of steady/engaged (RE = 17/26 couples; RD = 11/29 couples) evaluated on Jourard Self-Disclosure Qr (60 items on attitudes/opinions, tastes/interests, work, money, personality, body, non-to-fully disclosed). Reviews research on JDSQ; RE training/program. RE and RD groups, males/females, gender X treatment not significantly different/pretest on JSDQ for all targets; RE females significantly higher on context/tastes subtest. No differences were found between original and present subsample. ANOVAs for gain scores indicated significant group differences/pre-post for total disclosures (p = .004), and on attitudes (p = .042) and personalities (p = .034) with partner. Significant gains not found pre/follow-up tests for self-disclosure with partner, or pre/post, pre/follow-up, group differences, 6 content areas on total disclosure to friends, acquaintances. Discussion focuses on explanation for not sustaining gains pre/post to follow-up (loss of excitement, support group; risk-consciousness) or lack of application to friends, acquaintances (less opportunity, lack of specific practice, selective/inconsistent application, skill use with untrained = lack of match).

Ridley, Carl A.; Lamke, Leanne K.; Avery, Arthur W.; & Harrell, Jan E. (1982). The effects of interpersonal skills training on sex-role identity of premarital dating partners. Journal of Research in Personality, 16, 335-342.

Briefly reviews research on sex-role identity (androgeny, flexibility as desired trait) and attempts to change it at various points in the life cycle. Study subjects were 55 dating college couples (avg. age = 19.9, range 18-25) recruited to communication/PS program through radio/newspaper ads, posters, info table. Assignment to groups based on class schedule (PS/exp't'l. N = 26; control N = 29). Pre/post-test on Bem (1974) Sex Role Inventory and other measures (taped PS/ skill acquisition). Control group met 3-hr/8-wk to discuss, but not learn skills in interaction; experimental group received same amount of communication (instrumental and expressive)/PS training (9-step: Ridley & Harrell). Results (via 2-way analysis of covariance/feminity: pre/post-treatment-gender-treatment X gender) indicated significant effects for all but interaction, with treatment group scoring higher. Similar analyses for masculinity indicated a significant effect only for gender (M higher). Discussion focuses on trends, corroborating support of behavior analysis of pre/post audio tapes, Ridley, et.al.'s (1981) findings of increases in communication and PS for treatment group. Treatment group males and females, taught empathy and self-disclosure, increased on "I" messages, emphatic summary statements (femininity), significantly more than control group. A trend, but no significant differences between these groups were not found for masculinity/instrumental skill (possibly due to perception of program as enhancing expressive skills or BSRI bias on masculinity measurement).

Ridley, Carl A.; Jorgensen, Stephen R.; Morgan, Anita C.; & Avery, Arthur W. (1982). Relationship enhancement with premarital couples: An assessment of effects on relationship quality. American Journal of Family Therapy, 10, (3), 41-48.

Study to assess effects of RE on relationship adjustment, trust, intimacy, empathy, warmth, genuineness, and communication. College volunteer dating couples randomly assigned to relationship enhancement (RE: empathy, self-disclosure training, practice, homework) and relationship discussion (RD: review of topics) for 8 3-hr sessions over 8 weeks. Groups pre/post-tested with Relationship Change Scale (Guerney, 1977), Interpersonal Relationship Scale (Schlein, Guerney, Stover, 1971), modified Barrett-Leonard: empathy, warmth, genuineness [Guerney, 1976]). Analyses of variance found treatment X sex only for PCI (females higher/posttest). RE group improved significantly over RD (analysis of covariance/pretest covariate) on all dependent measures. RD group decreased on most skill dimensions, perhaps because of awareness increase without increased capacity to address awareness. Researchers note advantages of 2 treatment groups. Authors speculate on RE impact on dyadic formation, long term rel/marital satisfaction, and potential participants: (1) no experience; (2) self-disclosure/ role taking trial without success; (3) trial with success.

Ridley, Carl A., & Sladezeck, Ingrid E. (1992). Premarital relationship enhancement: Its effects on needs to relate to others. Family Relations, 41, (2), 148-153.

Emphasizes import of theory, communication skills/practice for program effectiveness; sees changes in control, affection, inclusion and giving/receiving positive communication (appropriate self-disclosure of feelings, ideas; reflective listening) as keys to RE program successes. HYPOTHESES Study subjects (steady dating, engaged couples; 18-24 yrs.) recruited via posters, radio, newspapers, booth (semester course registration); distressed screened to avoid difficulties in learning, departure from educational focus, dropout; randomly assigned to Relationship Enhancement (RE; N=27) and Relationship Discussion (RD; N=30). Pre/post FIRO-B assessment (54 items: Expressed & Wanted Affection, Control, Inclusion) to individuals. RE training (3 hr/wk, 8 wk for 3-4 couple small groups w/1 M & 1 F [15-hr] trained [grad.student] leaders + audiotape review; attitudes & skills in Expressor, Empathic Responder, Switching Roles, and Facilitator Modes to maximize satisf.of emotional & functional needs). RD control group reviewed and discussed info on relationship development for 8 wks w/trained leaders. Two-way ANCOVAs found treatment effects for Inclusion/Wanted (F [1, 109] = 5.464, p < .021); Control/Wanted (F [1, 109] = 4.019, p < . 047); and Affection/Wanted (F [1, 109] = 5.10, p < .026) and /Expressed (F [1, 109) = 4.709) = 4.709, p < .032), supporting hypotheses except w/r Expressed Control (sig.change only for F) and Expressed Inclusion. Sees RE as creating safe environ. by focus on feeling-expression skills; provide structured skills practice to reduce defensiveness; and facilitate group support and reinforcement (vs. disc.groups wh/may raise awareness w/o incr.skills--> frust.). Recommends research on long-term effects, trad.&egal. couples). Implications: Focus on 1) usable skills taught to varied audiences, contexts; 2) feedback of theory and practice; 3) much structured manuals, practice (even w/non-distressed); 4) experimenting w/RE for distressed couples.

British Columbia Council for the Family Model

Russell, Mary, & Lyster, Rosanne Farnden. (1992). Marriage preparation: Factors associated with consumer satisfaction. Family Relations, 41, (4), 446-451.

Marital problems and unmet potential (esp. communication and negotiation skills) are posited as reasons for preparation programs. Consumer satisfaction issues addressed by the study are often lacking. Research review notes effectiveness typically measured via consumer satisfaction reports, evaluation surveys, and skill training inventories (to mid-70s: global satisfaction, typically testimonial; since '80s: interaction and satisfaction and predictive validity). Most PMC employs no evaluation; studies often use small samples, few measures, no long-term follow-up. This study investigated levels of satisfaction (info and usability), with controls for couple and program traits.

A sample of 193/847 couples (26%) in the 1990 BC Council PMC (10 hr. lecture/skill training to 25-couple groups on communication, conflict mgt., roles, parenting, friends, family-of-origin, leisure, sex, spirituality, etc. led by trained therapist) returned surveys (89%F, 84% M first marriage; 62% cohabiting, avg. 2 mo. before marriage) returned the mailed Client Satisfaction Questionnaire (16 demographic items, 28 items on satisfaction w/knowledge and use, 10 items on views of program/awareness outcomes/help-seeking; 2 open-ended items on satisfaction; alpha = .92). Results showed high satisfaction for program (4.2) and recommendation (4.3/5.0), w/most open to seeking further help (3.8) or marital enrichment (3.7). Knowledge and Utilization were high for family-of-origin (4.0, 3.8), finances (3.9, 3.4), moderate for communication (3.7, 3.4), roles (3.6, 3.1), conflict resolution (3.3, 3.3), parenting (3.3, 3.2), and sexuality (3.1, 3.1), and lower for family/friends (2.8, 2.5), and spirituality (2.7, -). Older participants (median = 34 yrs.) were sig.more likely to recommend to others, say that all couples should participate, recommend discussion, increase in understanding, and seek further help. Younger couples (median = 25) were more satisfied (n.s.) with finances and parenting topics and less satisfied (n.s.) with communication knowledge and usefulness. Couples with greater time-to-marriage (> 2 mo.) benefitted more, were more likely to recommend and to plan enrichment participation and make further financial plans.

Discussion emphasizes positive ratings, noting inconsistencies over topics, timing, and couple types suggesting alterations to meet couple needs. Younger couples are seen to favor more structured exercises, with attention to practical skills (budgeting, parenting), while older couples prefer using experience to reflect on relationship processes. Low rankings for conflict, sex, and spirituality are seen to reflect discomfort or unwillingness to admit needs, especially just before marriage. Additional variables such as ethnicity, educational level, relationship history as well as more frequent, precise, and long-term follow-up are recommended for future research on satisfaction.

PREPARE/Follow-up

Nickols, Samuel A.; Fournier, David G.; & Nickols, Sharon Y. (1986). Evaluation of a preparation for marriage workshop. Family Relations, 35, (4), 563-571.

Reviews prior efforts in PMP, identifying effects of postmarital non-lecture methods. Presents workshop combining: (1) counseling and education; (2) lecture/discussion/practice; (3) values/ attitudes/interaction awareness in 6 2-hr sessions. Training sequence uses mini-lecture to introduce topic/skill, followed by facilitation (model, issues) activities (Leaders' Guide: Nichols). Authors higher post-test scores, more decisiveness among treatment couples, high consensus would be related to marriage decision, and higher program evaluations by couples who decided to get married. Thirty mostly white (57/60) engaged (47/60) Protestant (55/60) college couples (avg. age males = 21.7; females = 20.6) recruited via ads and referrals; assessed via PREPARE and mail-out evaluation/status of relationship survey (50/58 returned). One-way ANOVA for PREPARE indicated: (1) 5/12 significant pre/post individual raw score improvement (comn, sex, children, religion, friends); (2) 3 areas of significant improvement in indiv. percentage change on indecision scores (expectations, finances, sex), with a reduction in overall indecision; (3) significant reduction in couple indecision for sexuality; (4) couples who married workshop partner showed (a) "greater average percent change toward postive couple agreement" (45.4% vs 18.1%), with (b) significantly higher communication, sex, and children couple agreement raw scores, (c) significant differences between groups on expectations and friends, and (d) interaction (couples who married improved significantly in financial decision-making). Follow-up evaluation indicated that: (1) those who married found workshop more helpful (N.S.); (2) sex, self-disclosure, feeling expression, and conflict resolution were named as most helpful activities; (3) frequency of using skills was similar between married/not married but married were using specific self-disclosure, partner feeling observation, and role expectation skills more. Discussion notes: (1) changes in views of communication, sexuality, children/marriage; (2) 29% relationship termination rate as consequences of participation.

Systems

Praetorius, H.G., van Wyk, J.D., & Schepers, J.M. (1992). The evaluation of a marital preparation programme. South African Journal of Psychology, 22, (3), 140-146.

Program developed and tested a PMP program based on systems theory incorporating behavioral and client-centered approaches. Engaged couples (Afrikaans) in MPP had sig. higher scores on relationship adjustment (DAS), empathic understanding (Empathy Scale), Communication Skills (Communication Skills Test), positive reinforcement (Qr on PR), problem solving skills (Scoring Procedure on PS Skills), and intimacy (Intimacy Qr) at post-test and 6 mo. follow-up.

Comparison: Premarital Assessment Program vs. Couples Communication

Parish, William Eddie. (1992). A quasi-experimental evaluation of the premarital assessment program for premarital counseling. Australia-New Zealand Journal of Family Therapy, 13, (1), 33-36.

Notes divorce prevention rationale, reviews and recommendations of Schumm & Denton (1979), Bagarozzi & Rauen (1981). Outlines Premarital Assessment Program (PAP) instructional model of Buckner & Salts (1985): 1) Dating history and wedding plans; 2) Expectations, Roles, Needs, Goals; 3) Family, Finances, Friends, Fun; 4) Parents Meeting; 5) Communication and Conflict; 6) Values and Sexuality and notes session goals and tasks, discussions, assessment, and homework. Notes program and evaluation contributions of Relationship Enhancement and Couple Communication (Awareness Wheel, Communication exercises) and how these were incorporated in a second treatment. Describes method (9 CC, 5 PAP, 7 control group couples, 18-43 yrs. [avg. 24 yrs.], 37 entering first marriage/5 second), 88% White, 90% w/some college, recruited via flyers, ads, class and church announcements, assigned to group by schedule convenience. Training given 1 evening/week (2 hr.) for 6 weeks. MCI (Bienvenu, 1978), DAP (Spanier, 1976), and demographic Qs, 1 open-ended item Qr. Analysis of variance revealed n.s. gain scores for MCI, but sig. (p = .0325) w/post-hoc eta squared sig (p = .0202) for CC vs. control couples. Analyses of variance by Commitment to Continuance of the Relationship was sig. (p = .0457) w/sig. eta for CC vs. control (p = .0205). Speculates that added communication, exercises, group differences account for results. Cites need to incorporate communication in PMP. Notes sample size limitations, marital history differences among Ss, confounding of satisfaction and commitment measures. Recommends beginning therapists use more than PAP.

Minnesota Couples Communication Program

Miller, Sherrod; Nunnally, Elam W.; & Wackman, Daniel B. (1976). A communication training program for couples. Social Casework, 57, (1), 9-18.

Describes Minnesota Couples Communication Program (MCCP) created by family theorists, researchers, and therapists to enhance interpersonal behaviors of engaging (process emphasis) couples. Program based on developmental tasks and systems theory focuses on Foote & Cottrell (1963) concepts (1) interpersonal competence; (2) continual matching over time (attitude/behavior convergence); and (3) partners as active agents in mutual development, enhanced by skill-building vs knowing typical problems, normative actions. Operational goals of MCCP: (1) increasing self and relationship-awareness; (2) increasing communication skills needed for stable, adaptable system. Model emphasized: (1) educational (conflict negotiation, communication) vs remedial (2) system/ process (i.e., mental maps; 4-style framework) vs individual/ product; (3) skill vs information orientation. Rationale for program components: (1) 4 frameworks: help couples (recognize interaction patterns; grasp and use program concepts; establish a base for awareness and growth); (2) voluntary, conjoint participation; (3) couple groups (contexts for feedback, models, usually not present during engagement). Structure of program (5-7 couples; 1-2 certified instructors in 3-hr sessions/4 weeks): (1) Awareness Wheel (Alive & Aware), dimensions of self-awareness, 6 verbal skills; (2) accurate information exchange, 4 behavioral skills from Shared Meaning Framework; (3) Communication Styles Framework with 4 styles and implications; (4) own/partner esteem-building, esp. on conflict issues. Evaluation of program effects used field experiment with 17 couples randomly assigned to experimental (4 instructors), 15 to control group from regular participants in Minneapolis hospital program. Pre-post questionnaires and audio-taped interaction (recall accuracy [author-developed], work-pattern/ continuity [Hill Interaction Matrix] for 5-min. exchanges) revealed: (1) significant group differences at post-test on recall accuracy, work-pattern communication; (2) CC training had positive impact on 14/16 couples (most on only 1 dimension); (3) couples closest to wedding took fewest risks in discussions but showed greatest increases in pre-post test and self-report benefit scores. Limits: (1) only healthy couples; (2) size/costs; (3) attracts mainly high education group. Potential strengths (all MCCP programs): (1) benefits at any point in marital career; (2) success in many settings; (3) use as traditional program supplement or alternative.

Notes limited amount, types of marriage preparation/experience and MCCP purpose: "...teaching frameworks and skills to help people take charge of their relationship." Reviews origin of MCCP in family development theory, noting little information or agreement on how teach for task/transition completion. Discusses application of Foote & Cottrell (1955) interpersonal competence concept, esp. "continual matching over time" for a mutual growth-enhancing marital script. Identifies basis for principles/skills teaching in systems theory (stability/flexibility, maintained via communication, metacommunication). Program goals:

(1) increase self-awareness processes, consciousness of contributions to interaction, couple exploration of relationship rules related to conflict resolution and self-esteem; (2) increase couple capacity for clear, direct, open communication, metacommunication. Model emphasizes (1) educational orientation (equipping vs repairing; communication principles); (2) systems focus (dyad vs individual or group; "how" vs "why" focus; 4 styles for flexibility [esp. risk-taking]; facility to use own, seek outside resources); (3) skill-oriented (expanded vs limited couple awareness; specific skills); (4) conceptual frameworks (Awareness Wheel; Shared Meaning Process; Styles Framework; I Count/I Count You) to help couples understand principles, act as advanced organizers, provide a common basis for awareness, and provide structure for program evaluation; (5) voluntarism/participant choice (maxi-contract via interview to identify, practice, and transfer skills through all 4 sessions; mini-contract reiterating voluntary, intentional involvement in specific events); (6) group as a learning and support (not pressure) context with models, peer interaction, and non-judgmental feedback, all based on strengths (vs pathology) and conscious choice (vs deterministic) framework. Reviews structure and program frameworks: 5-7 couples with 1-2 instructors in 3-hr/4 wk continuous sessions, using Alive and Aware in each of the following frameworks: (1) Awareness Wheel, as "pivot" for organizing, using self-information and self-disclosure choices (speaking-for-self; sense, interpretive, feeling, intention, and action statements); (2) Shared Meaning Process intended to increase communication accuracy and awareness of others (message-restatement-confirmation/clarification); (3) Communication Styles (based on W.Hill, 1965) to preview alternatives (esp. aware, responsive) and impact of styles on others; (5) I Count/I Count You, similar to TA (Harris, 1967), but emphasizing responsibility for own, other esteem. Reports original field experiment which randomly assigned 17 premarital volunteer couples (recruited from student body by hospital) to experimental, 15 to control groups. Groups pre-tested with questionnaires, audio-taped interaction; post-tested on same after 4-wk treatment (controls at 6 wk). Results: (1) recall accuracy (memory of interaction own/other/both/neither agreeing, putting self down, putting other down, expressing feelings, yielding, making suggestions, etc./same at pre-test) gain of experimental group significantly greater than control group;

(2) work-pattern (taped interchange on irritations by other, scored using Communication Styles framework/control group higher pre-test) gain significantly more (vs controls' decrease) for experimental group, indicating impact of MCCP on interaction; (3) 14/16 experimental couples gained (usually on 1 dimension) vs 8/15 control couples; impact of MCCP on marriage transition not tested. Other research (Campbell, 1974) with married couples indicated change on actual, not self-reported communication behavior (post-test only); (Schwager & Conrad, 1974) found no differences on self, other-acceptance between disadvantaged adults and married couples (plus 2 divorced), with both groups gaining significantly. Notes precautions, limitations: (1) design assumes healthy couples; (2) size limits; (3) primarily used and tested on middle class adults; strengths: (1) tests at several points in life-cycle; (2) several locations; (3) program can replace or supplement traditional methods. Suggests (1) flexible classroom format (15-30 persons); (2) advanced modules for application to specific issues (intimacy, trust, decision-making, sex, etc.), identification of boundaries, examining relationship history, renegotiating contracts.

Marriage and Family Class Evaluation

Ex-post-facto survey of 10 marriage enrichment couples and 68 female grads of a high school FLE course on perceived effectiveness of premarital counseling (PEPMC). In general, programs were rated as somewhat-very helpful, although 20% and 15% of each group rated them as not helpful or useless. Correlation analyses: PEPMC and voluntariness (r = .51, .16), controlling for duration (r = .62; .38); PEPMC with duration (r = .15, .56), controlling for voluntariness (r = .43; .63), multiple R controlling for both variables (.273; .342, both N.S.); PEPMC with duration of courtship (r = .47; -.71). Concluded up to 34% of perceived effectiveness of programs predictable from 2 variables; longer programs may be more effective but may seem less voluntary. Rural couples with longer courtships felt counseling was less voluntary, less beneficial. Suggests perception of benefit may be delayed.

Laner, Mary Riege; & Russell, J. Neil. (1994). Course content and change in students: Are marital expectations altered by marrriage education? Teaching Sociology, 22, (1), 10-18.

Poses teaching dilemma: Should MP support the optimism and high expectations of early marriage (which facilitates short-term adjustment) or reveal the realities of declining marital satisfaction over the life course (which may sustain adjustment long-term)? Treatment (103 [Pre-]; 123 [Post-] in a M&F class) and control (70 [Pre-]; 53 [Post-]) groups completed a 32-dimension survey on realistic and idealistic marriage expectations. Treatment subjects attended a lecture/discussion course on Courtship & Marriage featuring problems of cohabitation, commitment, sexuality, communication, trust, violkence, competitiveness, infidelity, rebounding, boredom, deception, and dependency and topics of stereotypes, equalitarianism, marriage motivations, divorce, special problems and myths of marriage and remarriage. None of the 32 variables was significantly different for males or females, pretest-to-posttest. In the experimental group, females' unrealistic expectations scores decreased on companionship, mutual respect, love, partner/houshold responsibilities; males' unrealisttic views of love declined, while expectations of equality and household work increased. At pretest, females in the experimental group expected more equality than control group females; experimental group males expected less equality than control group peers. By posttest, 7 areas of difference between groups were significant for females; none for males. Authors see course as instrumental in decreasing females' expectations, strengthening equalitarian expectations of males. They note the non-random selection, small subset groups, and possible influence of a female instructor on female responses.

In a different sample (231 [pre-]; 309 [post-]), experimental groups had higher expectations on all but 4 variables pretest; greater differences on post-test (although no pre-posttest differences for experimental group).

Personalized Marriage Preparation

Pino, Christopher. (1982). Development and assessment of personalized programs for marriage preparation and enrichment. Family Perspectives, 16 (1), 33 - 39.

Presents a new enrichment approach, following Marriage Encounter, MCCP, and RE communication-skills focii, which he calls Personalized Marriage Preparation. PMP offers diagnostic testing (using PM Inventory, Bess & Assoc., 1976), with subsequent feedback on partner agreement, followed by a 2-day workshop. Orientation to couple, quartet, and lecture leads into a lecture on communication, with paired introduction exercises using skills (based on Gordon, 1971). Next, positive strengths and weaknesses from diagnostic tests are reviewed. Couples then view videos on conflict management (based on Bach, 1972) and marriage, adapting lessons to their own relationships and the behavior contracting process (based on Sager, 1978). A month later, the second session examines family-of-origin and personal expectations influences on views of marriage, leading to further discussion and contracting. A segment focuses on forgiveness, another on applying skills and insights within the context of the couple's marriage commitment. Information packets, with exercises on skill areas are given to each couple. Pino also summarizes programs for remarriage and family enrichment based on the PMP model. Finally, an evaluation study in the Catholic Diocese of Buffalo, with 9 couples each in PMP, Pre-Cana, and Engaged Encounter programs, found that PMP-trained couples' had significantly higher post-test scores on PMCI (Bienvenu, 1975) and Conflict Mgt Qr (adapted from Sanford, 1975) and compared to the other groups. Fiances' ratings of conflict management improved, but not significantly, from pre- to post-test. Discussion focuses on explanation and application of results and limitations of the research.

Canadian Experiment

Briefly reviews critique and recommendations (high need; relevance; lack of coordination, creativity) for PMC. Presents attempt to develop innovative program and test its effectiveness. Emphasizes communication and conflict resolution for broad appeal and relevance to identified themes in research. Session foci (premarital): (1) communication; (b) family influences; (3) finances); (4) sexuality; (5) law and ceremony; (postmarital): (6) conflict; (7) changing marital roles; (7) building a better relationship. Small group discussion (6 or less couples) was selected over lecture, films added to each segment, male-female co-leaders for each group remained throughout training, and post-wedding sessions were held. Notes solutions to common problems of: (1) self-selection (offered where not usually available) and (2) subjective measures (objective measures of conflict area and typical strategy as well as use of support system). Nineteen Toronto churches referred engaged couples who were asked to participate. Acceptance rate: 41% for experimental; 37% for control group. Couples were randomly assigned and interviewed 1 mo. before premarital and marital sessions and at 12 mo/marriage in trainers' or own homes (pre and 6 mo. postmarital) regarding demographics, family relationships, attitudes, disagreements, help-seeking and 2 hypothetical conflict tasks (Rausch, et.al., 1974) handled by the couple. Blind raters reviewed responses with high reliability. Later refusal rate lower (8, 9%). Multivariate analyses on 9 experimental and control group characteristics prior to treatment revealed no differences. Analysis of group subsamples for coded discussions of disagreement areas found: (1) experimental group decreased in reporting conflict about interpersonal topics (controls avoided these at 6 mo, increased dramatically at 1 yr); (2) experimental group increased in attention to money, job (controls increased at 6 mo., decreased to 1 yr); (3) experimental group conflict on family and friends remained about the same throughout (controls increased at 6 mo, decreased to premarital level at 1 yr); (4) both groups decreased on discussion of religion, values at 6 mo., increased to premarital levels at 1 yr; (5) discussion on social activities and time together followed the pattern of area 4. A second analysis indicated experimental group maintained positive effect (affect) at 6 and 12-mo, whereas control group declined. Subsample analyses indicated steady improvements in experimental group positive conflict resolution, with a significant difference between groups at 1 yr. In help-seeking, (1) experimental group members named significantly more types of helpers at 6-mo and 12-mo, even with a group X time interaction; (2) a significant interaction and significant 1-yr differences were also located in professional help-seeking. Discussion focuses on: (1) significance of experimental group's decline in interpersonal conflict (without avoiding problems) and positive affect, probably due to intervention boosting skills and confidence; (2) experimental couples' willingness to seek help; (3) experimental group's increase in hypothetical conflict resolution skill 6-12 mo, indicating effectiveness of postmarital sessions. Authors note limits of audio evaluation of a subsample, effects of interview as intervention, 1-year effects.

Catholic Marriage Preparation

Center for Marriage and Family. (1995). Marriage preparation in the Catholic Church: Getting it right. Omaha, NE: Center for Marriage and Family, University College, Creighton University.

Summary: 1) Most Catholic MP participants satisfied; 2) Effects of MP decline over time; 3) Mandatory requirements don't reduce value of MP; 4) Team teaching (incl. clergy) viewed as beneficial; 5) Intensity increases MP value (too few/too many over 8-9 sessions); 6) MP keys = communication, commitment, conflict resolution, children, church, and dual careers); 7) MP effects stronger for those with prior or current religious education; 8) MP attitudes are influenced by sense of belonging to and participation in church; 9) inter-church couples in MP typically less involved in church, have lower expectations of marriage; 10) higher expectations of MP related to higher value on MP.

Describes context (MP ministry, theological roots), goals and outcomes, study history (FOCCUS users), methodology (Qs on current practice, value of MP, desired aspects of MP, traits of MP valuers; random sample of 3,195/72,725 FOCCUS couples 1987-94 [no controls], w/some stratification for special populations [pre-marriage pregnancy, inter-church, couples with children, couples < 21 or > 31]; FOCCUS scores). Demographics indicate .7% divorced (.8% separated), most had children; 43.6% cohabited before marriage [15.6 mo. avg.], 95.5% were engaged [64% for < 1 yr.], avg. marriage age was 26.5 yrs; 74.8% were Catholic, 91.5% had some religious education, over 60% had a college education, and only 9.5% had incomes under $30,000; 91.2% were Anglo (3.3% Hispanic; 1.5% Native American; 1.4% Asian; .8% African American). Study is a good cross-section of Catholic MP participants, but limited in generalizability to ethnic minorities, separated/divorced persons. Fifty couples surveyed had decided not to marry.

Addressing the practice of MP, clergy/parish staff provided MP for 82.3% of Ss; weekend programs for couples served 39.9% (w/20-30% served by couple leaders in private, small- or large-group); most weekend programs administered on the diocese level, with most private and group sessions offered by the local level. Clergy were instructors in 85.6% of cases (21.1% parish staff; 55.6% lay couples), with clergy/lay couple combinations in 32% of cases. Format typically included discussion time with partner (85.7%), inventories (83.9%), written materials/study or discussion (78.1%), lectures (75.9%), discussion w/couples (61.7%), role playing (35%), videos (33.1%), and reunion sessions (14.3%). Topics addressed in over 90% of cases included communication, religion and values, commitment, conflict resolution, and children (marital roles, sex, sacraments, personality, finances, family planning, friends, extended family, compatability, leisure, balancing home and career covered in over 80%; dual careers and drugs/alcohol in over 70%).

Almost eighty percent of persons married 0-5 years (92.6%/yr. 1) affirmed the value of MP (35% negative), with affirmation dropping to 46% by year 8. Perceived value was lowest for 0-10 hrs., peaked at 26-35 hrs. Couple/ clergy (then couples weekend) format was viewed as most helpful, one-session lecture seen as least helpful. Clergy and lay couples were viewed as most helpful (68%); counselors and financial planners least helpful (41%); team approaches, featuring discussion with partner, inventory, lecture, written study materials, and couple-couple discussion were seen as helpful by over 50%. Over seventy percent rated comunication, commitment helpful, with conflict resolution, religion and values, children, sacraments over 60%. Benefits most often cited included time with partner (75.7%), learning about partner (68.5%), learning about marriage (65.8%), content of material (63.7%). Dyadic Adjustment Scale scores correlated most highly with "deepening relationship with God" (r = .20), relationship to partner, learning about marriage, spouse, and specific issues. Brief (1-4 mo.) and long (> 18 mo.) engaged couples found MP least helpful; those with high levels of religious education, previous MP, higher incomes and educational levels, parenting. Cohabitants and remarrying couples' views of MP did not differ significantly from other couples.

Summary implications recommend continued support for MP, realistic assessment of duration of effects/need for continued enrichment, continued requirements, team approach, focused attention to intensity, strengthening focus on the 5 C's, attention to early and sustained involvement/religious education especially for inter-church couples, and promotion of high expectations for programs. Detailed appendices of bibliography, questionnaire, methodology, and results on specific items are included in the 188-page document.

Premarital Counseling for Minors

Rolfe, David; & Roosa, Mark. (1979). Court-ordered evaluation of young teenage applicants for marriage licenses: Follow-up of a pilot study. Conciliation Courts Review, 17, (2), 25-29.

Reviews history of teen pregnancy and marriage. Presents "a program of pre-marriafgfe evaluation and brief counseling..." for teen marriage license applicants to investigate: (1) possibility of child abuse; (2) readiness for marriage; (3) couple potential for viable marriage following Rolfe (1976). Format involves 1-3 hour session taking: (1) psychosocial history; (2) relationship development; (3) practical plans (income, medical insurance, prenatal exam, housing, readiness for household); (4) educational achievements, plans, life goals; (5) knowledge of contraception, family size preference, spacing; (6) possible motivations for out-of-wedlock pregnancy and subsequent parent support, coupled with tests (Marital Roles Inventory: Hurvitz, 1961;1965), Luscher (1969) Color Test, and Financial Priorities Inventory (Rolfe, 1974). Consultation with parents (2 or 4; with or without teens) to: (1) deal with guilt, anger issues; (2) redirect energies to constructive support; (3) make a premarriage contract (describes sections) when couple is to live with in-laws, 'clearing the air' for constructive discussion and action. Study presented was a 1976 telephone follow-up on 70/90 couples served from 1972 through 1975 and who had married. 40/70 (1 yr married/child in first 7 mo) were contacted. Initial feelings of resentment about procedure retained in only 1 case; many expressed gratitude. Marital stability of the group was 85%, perhaps due to parents' investment.

Premarriage Education Programs

Literature Reviews--Bibliography

Critical reviews of one or more areas of practice or the state of the art in premarriage education.

Bagarozzi, Dennis A.; & Rauen, Paul I. (1981). Premarital counseling: Appraisal and status. The American Journal of Family Therapy, 9, (3), 13-27.

Fournier, David G.; & David H. Olson. (1986). Programs for premarital and newlywed couples. In R.F. Levant. (Ed.). Psychoeducational Approaches to Family Therapy and Counseling., pp. 194-231, Springer Publishing Co.

Olson, David H. (1983). How effective is marriage preparation? In D.R. Mace (Ed.). Prevention in family services: Approaches to family wellness, pp. 65-75, Beverly Hills: Sage.

Schumm, Walter R.; & Denton, Wallace. (1979). Trends in premarital counseling. Journal of Marital and Family Therapy, 5, (4), 23-32.

Schumm, Walter R.; & Denton, Wallace. (1980). Premarital counseling approaches, objectives, content, and evaluation: A bibliography. Pastoral Psychology, 28 (3), 181-187.

Stahmann, Robert F.; & Hiebert, William J. (1987). Premarital counseling: The professional's handbook. Second edition. Lexington, MA: D.C Heath/Lexington Books.

Stanley, Scott M.; Markman, Howard J.; St. Peters, Michelle; Leber, B. Douglas. (1995). Strengthening marriages and preventing divorce: New directions in prevention research. Family Relations, 44, (3), 392-401.

Premarriage Education Programs

Literature Reviews--Annotated Bibliography

Bagarozzi, Dennis A.; & Rauen, Paul I. (1981). Premarital counseling: Appraisal and status. The American Journal of Family Therapy, 9, (3), 13-27.

Evaluates 13 premarital programs using standardized intervention procedures and dependent measures of program effectiveness. Begins with brief review of history and social context, client traits and needs for premarital counseling. Family systems and development theory as well as preventive/educational approach recommended as minimal, along with discussion of marriage tasks (notes Duvalll, 1971), skill training, and compatability checks. Programs reviewed: Boike, 1977; D'Augelli, et.al. (1974); Freeman, 1975; Glendening & Wilson, 1972; Hinkle & Moore; MacRae, 1975; Meadows & Taplin, 1970; Microys & Bader, 1980; Miller, 1971; Ridley, et.al., 1979; Ross, 1977; Schlein, 1971; Van Zoost, 1973. Program analysis findings: 3/13 programs used family theory; 8/13 teach communication skills, but only 3 include problem solving and conflict negotiation; 2/13 programs challenge couples to reconsider marriage. Techniques ranged from lecture to group experiences to combinations of didactic, experiential methods. None taught communication the same way; none used the same evaluation measures. In 3 communication programs using control groups, treatment groups improved more, although no long-term effects were assessed. Methodological analysis found: 6/13 programs used control groups and 1 used alternate treatments, all but 1 randomly assigned. 4/7 programs used behavioral coding (vs perception of changes); only 1 used standardized observation; 1 used paper-and-pencil scales. All 6 control group studies found no differences on at least 1 outcome measure. Two studies with follow-up evaluations retained subsamples in which (1) Microys & Bader's trained video raters found differences in attitudes toward conflict negotiation at 6 and 12 months (methods critiqued) and (2) Ridley et.al.'s behavioral raters found differences in problem-solving at 6 months. Authors critique lack of stated training regimen and standardized interaction coding, emphasize need for control groups and long-term follow-up. Evaluation of nonexperimental programs focuses on lack of validity of effectiveness measures (5/6 used unstandardized self-report Qrs; Van Zoost also used standardized). Notes repeated review of program models, infrequency of detailed reporting. Emphasizes need for breadth and relevance in goals, evaluation, recommending: (1) discussion of developmental tasks; (2) teaching variety of behavioral skills (problem solving, communication, strategies); and (3) chance to reevaluate decision to marry. Stresses need for 6-level individual and dyadic (Gurman & Kniskern, 1980) "insider" and "outsider" (Olson, 1974), short and long-term program evaluation. Cautions against marital stability as sole criterion. Recommends FACES (Olson, et.al., 1979), own SIDCARB, satisfaction inventories (Locke-Wallace, 1959; Orden & Bradburn, 1968), and Relationship Style Inventory (Christensen & Scoresby, 1975) as "insider" measures. Relational Communication Coding System (Ericson & Rogers, 1973) and Marital Interaction Coding System (Weiss, 1975) touted as good "outsider" measures. Hill's (1965) Interaction Matrix combines both viewpoints. Concludes with comments on lack of impact findings in published programs and research deficits of existing studies.

Fournier, David G.; & David H. Olson. (1986). Programs for premarital and newlywed couples. In R.F. Levant. (Ed.). Psychoeducational Approaches to Family Therapy and Counseling., pp. 194-231, Springer Publishing Co.

Comprehensive summary of the status of premarital/early marriage enrichment programs, addressing the lack of preventive efforts (especially among therapists) and context for premarital and early marriage programs (divorce rate, role shifts, premarital developmental tasks). Reviewers present a case for marriage prep/enrichment as prevention, pointing out that "problems couples have during engagement are carried over into marriage" and that a variety of methods can be used to avert such problems. Programming goals appropriate to developmental needs are presented. In addition, they note the educational and policy making efforts of church, school, and government agencies. Premarital program (1) types (family life education classes, instructional counseling, and enrichment), (2) teaching methods (lecture, discussion, modeling, role playing, private reflection, couple dialogues, experiential techniques, skill-building, and counseling), (3) training of facilitators (none-to-great amounts), (4) goals/objectives/philosophy (including comment on no or vague goals and common goals: clarifying expectations, negotiation skills, problem-solving skills, communication awareness and skills, increased realism, information on marital topics, expression of feelings, and individual contributions to interaction), (5) number and range of topics covered (info, process-oriented), timing of program (before and in 'critical first year'), (6) use of assessment (limited, methodological, and (7) evaluation (potentials, limits, and guidelines) issues are reviewed, citing many studies, 1970-85. Key issues related to (8) church-related programs, (9) lecture vs experiential programs, and (3) skill-enhancement programs (Relationship Enhancement, Couples Communication, PREP) are discussed. The PREPARE inventory/feedback/dialogue program is reviewed in detail, followed by a similar model of an ideal program. The article includes tables summarizing (1) problem areas in early marriage (focused on idealization, limited resources, consensus, modeling); (2) characteristics of various types of programs; (3) PREPARE inventory; and (4) a design for an ideal program.

Olson, David H. (1983). How effective is marriage preparation? In D.R. Mace (Ed.). Prevention in family services: Approaches to family wellness, pp. 65-75, Beverly Hills: Sage.

Schumm, Walter R.; & Denton, Wallace. (1979). Trends in premarital counseling. Journal of Marital and Family Therapy, 5, (4), 23-32.

Rehearses history and goals of premarital counseling, reviews surveys of church-based programs (clergy training, numbers of sessions, materials). Summarizes approaches: (1) family life education classes; (2) therapy/problem-focused; (3) instructional counseling (info, problem review with clergy, M.D.); (4) enrichment (self-help) and typical topics (sex, roles, in-laws, wedding, religion, commitment, communication, conflict mgt. Cites need/advantage of post-marital counseling (esp. 6, 12 mo. after wedding) in support and skill-building. Notes training of clergy neglected, due to: (1) assumption that therapy or family life education background is easily applied to PMC needs; (2) small caseloads, and comparably less justification for training; (3) lack of research and shared curriculum. Strongly recommends professional direction of sessions. Points to lack of evaluation and factors which inflate or deflate ratings. Reviews gains found in 3 dissertations and 1 study, noting lack of pre/post measures and/or control groups. Notes gains in communication skills in D'Augelli, et.al. (1974), "mixed results" of Miller, et.al. (1976) and other RE progams, and difficulty of comparing varied programs. Reviews need to (1) match evaluation to program goals, (2) note if treatment improves or reduces decline, (3) evaluate substantive as well as statistical differences, (4) measure lon-term as well as short-term outcomes, (5) compare alternate treatment groups, citing examples of deficiencies for each. Concludes that no approach is clearly superior, knowing client needs and relationship development patterns will enhance programming.

Schumm, Walter R.; & Denton, Wallace. (1980). Premarital counseling approaches, objectives, content, and evaluation: A bibliography. Pastoral Psychology, 28 (3), 181-187.

Reviews and classifies 67 articles and books on PMC, 1940-80, noting general approach (therapeutic, instructional, enrichment); presentation (detailed program, outline, case study, multiple programs); format (groups, conjoint, indiv/conjoint, individual); topics (expectations, communication/conflict, sex, religion, parent/in-laws, roles, parenting, living arr., friends, intimacy, wedding, physical exam, inventories), special problems (teen, finances, premarital sex, anxiety, remarriage, handicap, family opposition, dissimilarity), program goals, counselor roles, and program evaluation (pre-post testing, couple self-reports, post and follow-up tests).

Stahmann, Robert F.; & Hiebert, William J. (1987). Premarital counseling: The professional's handbook. Second edition. Lexington, MA: D.C Heath/Lexington Books.

Reference/text in 5 parts: (I) Foundations (1) Overview/ Developments; (2) Motivations for Marriage; (3) Psychosocial Dynamics: What is Marriage?; (II) Conjoint Couple Counseling (4) Structural and Administrative Issues; (5) Dynamic Relationship History; (6) on Leaving Home (family-of-origin); (III) Group Premarital Counseling (7) Design and Structural Considerations; (8) Content and Methods; (IV) Marrying Again (9) Remarriage Counseling; (10) Counseling Blended/Stepfamilies; (V) Special Topics (11) Very Young, Late Marrying, Forced Marriage; (12) Seriously Conflicted Couple; (13) Sexuality and PMC; (14) Marital Resource Mgt.; (15) Instrumentation.

(I) Foundations/(1) Overview/ Developments in PMC reviews the background: clergy, physicians, professional mental health providers (often dysfunctional rel.); 1928 emotional-physical exam-to-mid 1950s emphasis on medical/pathological, Freudian model which assumed problem marriage caused by neurotic persons; and theological guardianship role, emphasizing initiation with attention to education on Christian marriage, religion in the home, and wedding rehearsal. After WWII, interaction focus, but not prevention predominated. Theological shift toward screening for pathology, readiness (stressful issues with rising divorce). Academic courses (secondary, college) increased, with emphasis on information (vs skills, attitudes). Rutledge's (1966) purposes: (1) self-awareness; (2) continued growth; (3) communication/ problem solving. Summarizes research (Lewis & Spanier, 1979) on healthy premarital relationships (Lewis & Spanier, 1979) and PMC (Hancock, 1983 test of DRI), Fowers & Olson (1986), emphasizing benefits of (1) voluntary; (2) screening; and (3) early intervention; (4) relationship focus; (5) assessment instruments; (6) postwedding sessions. Emphasizes importance of graduate training needed for providers.

(2) Motivations for Marriage assumes view of marriage influence counseling theory and methods. Summarizes typical "illusions of marriage" and comments: (1) mate selection/marriage are accidental (chance, not responsible decisions)...humans choose someone they need at the time; (2) marriage is win/lose... either both wins or loses. Notes attitudes toward myths shape response to PMC. Cites marriage motivations (amateur psychotherapy/ growth-group: (1) emotional immaturity/need to be cared for; (2) desire for personal change, loneliness, hurt; (3) social pressure to be married; (4) adult-status; (5) sexual urge; (6) emotional maturity/growth, intimacy.

(3) Psychosocial Dynamics: What is Marriage? focuses on marital dimensions: (1) social; (2) geographical; (3) sexual; (4) emotional; (5) intellectual; (6) economic; (7) recreational; (8) religious; (9) legal; (10) paradoxical. Contend couples coming to PMC are psychologically though not yet legally married. Discuss bonding/commitment processes in attraction, marriage and relation to normal and pathological dependency and self-esteem needs. Examine commitment process: (1) beginning privately with own view "that person is for me;" (2) shared, verbalized bonding; (3) public declaration of commitment.

(II) Conjoint Couple Counseling/(4) Structural & Administrative Issues notes: (1) providers of PMC (clergy, physicians, others); (2) formats (group; couple/ serious conflicts). PMC contexts crucial to PMC methods, couple expectations. In parish setting: (1) denominational expectations (traditions, theology, training and encouragement for PMC, cross-pressures on civil & spiritual agent); (2) congregational expectations (i.e., rural vs urban); (3) couple (positive vs problem-focused) but may be overly romantic. Clinical/agency setting involves: (1) fewer overt, more implicit expectations; (2) theoretical expectations (psychotherapeutic-individual vs systems-couple interaction); (3) client expectations which vary depending on conflict, commitment levels, clinic involvement in PMC groups. Medical settings generally sought out for medical consultation, birth control/ sex education; oriented to individuals; limited by physician's time. Authors review PMC/ therapy history has come from individual to indiv/separate to conjoint while education emerged from tutorial to whole class to graded approaches. View conjoint sessions, focusing on bilateral couple interaction, without individual-counselor secrets as best. Goals/desired outcomes of PMC: 1) clarification of self (thoughts, feelings, beliefs, fantasies, identity); 2) other's uniqueness, personality, contribution); 3) binding of anxiety (about wedding, relationship, repeating family-of-origin); 4) building adventure (to explore self, family); 5) communication (exchange and relationship language); 6) prediction (of differences); 7) overcoming inhibitions (opening issues). Design of PMC outlined. Recommend materials on wedding for couple.

(5) Dynamic Relationship History (DRH) describes 4 2-hr session content: (1) Introduction (overview, acquaintence, assessment, contract); (2) DRH, rehearsing events of past/present/future interaction, decisions to: (a) improve awareness of dynamics; (b) predict crises; (c) approaching future growth (not catch-all) in order to: (a) control anxiety; (b) create direction; (c)structure info; (d) heighten awareness; (e) stimulate movement; (f) promote involvement on own level, concrete terms; (g) facilitate questions (via active questioning, attention to avoided areas). DRH designed to: (a) facilitate responsibility; (b) serve as developmental milestone. Technique of DRH (Y-graph time-line on newsprint, blackboard) solicits description of events (emphasis on interaction pattern) from: 1) first meeting to wedding (add in PREPARE insights, etc.) including other dates, patterns of self-esteem, exclusivity, perceptions of commitment, conflicts; 2) engagement, family responses, sexual involvement; 3) wedding attitudes. Areas of attention through DRH: 1) personalities; 2) communication; 3) conflict resolution; 4) finances; 5) leisure; 6) sex; 7) family, friends; areas for counselor's attention: 1) commitment; 2) dependency; 3) self-esteem, communication; (4) power; 5) intimacy; (6) religion, values. Counselor provides wrap-up of strengths, weaknesses after DRH.

(3) On Leaving Home explores: 1) separation from parents today vs historically; 2) family-of-origin (3 sessions focused on: sibs [past and present successes], sib interactions [amount and type of interaction, spacing], P-C interactions [style, favorites, negative affect], husband-wife [power, decision-making, anger, affection, self-esteem, cooperation], family style [cohesion, adaptability], parent models [affection, socializing, alcohol, discipline, finances, religion, interactive style], wrap-up; option: goodbye to parents [advice, 2-generation implications]) using informal 2-generation genogram on newsprint/blackboard and free-flowing questions, responses; (4) mechanics of wedding, theological instructions, focusing on: 1) couple awareness of beliefs, values, differences, practices, plans (learning mutual respect) during DRH; or 2) addition of another unit with exercises/discussion/presentation of theology (i.e., Clinebell's [1975] intentional marriage method). 6-mo. postwedding session recommended to examine day-by-day living; authors' experience finds appointment usually kept.

(III) Group Premarital Counseling/(7) Design and Structural Considerations defines group PMC as counseling (small group vs teaching/ large groups), focusing on personalities and relationships. Advantages: 1) economical use of counselor time/ client money; 2) peer interaction helpful; 3) reality reflection by others; 4) not feeling alone; 5) direct couple examples; 6) satisfaction with helping others; must be weighed against disadvantages: 1) spouse inhibition; 2) some problems too intimate. Group PMC design issues: 1) conjoint screening interview for appropriate placement; 2) male-female co-counselor models; 3) groups > 4 < 14; 4) 5, 2 1/2-hr sessions; 5) group closed after beginning; 6) homework, applying experiences; 7) confidentiality. Approaches suggested: 1) Relationship Enhancement; 2) Premarital Program for Marriage Enrichment; 3) Minnesota Couples Communication Program. (8) Content and Methods session/goals suggestions: 1) building rapport, self-disclosure, group identity and goals, homework; 2) discovering "other," speaker/listener roles, examining histories, problems, models, completing FIRO-B; 3) discussing #2, grasping FIRO-B/interpersonal behaviors, homework; 4)discussing strengths, problems; teaching conflict management; homework; 5) sum up, reviewing process and content; optional 6) wedding preparations.

Identifies counselor role as guiding facilitator, active in introducing topics (affection, companionship, money, religion, child discipline), maintaining discussion focus on couples, modeling communication.

(IV) Marrying Again/(9) Remarriage Counseling focuses on theoretical issues of 1) leaving previous marriage; 2) decourting; 3) continuation of previous dysfunction; 4) blaming. Notes special issues in parish, agency contexts. Design for sessions (preceded by PREPARE, TJTA) follows premarital, adds previous marriages (dating, conflict, style, attempts to change, breakdown, divorce decision, parting, similarities/differences). (10) Counseling Blended/Stepfamilies rehearses: 1) couple issues (role models, losses, old traditions); 2) parental problems (recovery/entrance, planning, reconstituting, extended family connections, stepparent roles); 3) finances; 4) adjustment of children. Recommends continued counseling, esp. using assessment instruments.

(V) Special Topics/(11) Very Young, Late Marrying, Forced Marriage reviews Schonick's (1975) report on court-ordered PMC for minors, research on early and late marriage, warns against generalizing to individuals. Notes maturity factors, Knox (1979) recommendations for extending engagement (< 1 yr courtship, lack of money, parent disapproval, pregnancy). Notes waus to use engagement to enhance chances of marital satisfaction: 1) extend DRH to promote "getting to know each other;" 2) recognize, handle danger signals (Knox, 1979: on-and-off engagement, chronic arguments); 3) increase interaction with in-laws; 4) assess "comfort level" (Knox, 1979: empathy, spontaneity, trust, interest-care, respect, criticalness-hostility).

(12) The Seriously Conflicted Couple chapter presents treatment options: 1) ignore dysfunction; 2) referral; 3) modify procedures to treat couple. Suggests location severe conflict, atypical problems by counseling methods, instruments, especially T-JTA traits which imply negative interaction: 1) uncommitted; 2) passive-inactive; 3) unresponsive/insensitive; 4) apprehensive/ pessimistic; and 5) angry/aggressive partners.

(13) Sexuality and PMC reviews changes in relationship patterns, continued need for information, interaction awareness. Discusses denominational and congregational expectations in parish, value of using expert professional. Considers couples will expect and well-receive sex ed. if congregation is positive about it. Notes expectations of clinics, physicians. Suggests sessions include: 1) biology and anatomy; 2) sexual response/interaction; 3) family planning, suggesting resources for each.

(14) Marital Resource Management focuses on tasks of new husband, wife (complementary, conflicting); explains values clarification exercise (significant other impact; topics; comparisons). Notes value of financial awareness, budgeting/net worth exercises on own or in context of decision-making skills (using Stuart, 1980: Who decides exercise).

(15) Instrumentation chapter recommends reasoned use, adequate training of a variety of assessment methods. Recommends step-approach to selecting: try test with self, friend, persons known well; discuss and evaluate outcome, use carefully with clients. Cites advantages of written assessments alongside clinical measures.

Cites increases in divorce and rates of distress aims to review longitudinal research on prevention/skill building efforts with several audiences, as well as dilemmas of dissemination. Notes research on marital distress and adult and child physical, emotional and behavioral disorders (depression, anxiety, conduct disorders) and productivity. Destructive conflict (i.e., invalidation, withdrawal, pursuit-withdrawal, negative interpretations) is identified with divorce and distress risk. Since dysfunctional communication which erodes love, sexual attraction, friendship, trust, and commitment and is difficult to alter amid marital distresses (when therapeutic intervention is most common), risk-reducing/competence-building educational programs before marriage hold the most promise for adjustment. PREP, a 12 hr. (6 wk., one-day, or weekend) conflict resolution/ intimacy-building knowledge and skill program (not therapy) consistent with behavioral marital therapy and marital communication training and adapted to married, pre-marriage, and dating couples was designed to meet this need. Core themes (danger signs for future problems, gender differences, value of structure to promote safety, Speaker/Listener Technique, problem solving, conflict ground rules, focus on issues vs. events, import of beliefs and expectations, forgiveness, commitment, enhancing fun, friendship, sensuality) are introduced via brief lectures, with coached practice and homework from Fighting for Your Marriage. Core interventions are behavioral (communication and problem-solving models, including "time out" to stop escalation and gain control) and cognitive (avoiding negative interpretations, identifying/evaluating/sharing expectations, long-term commitment orientation, realistic exchange attitudes, focus on positive benefits of marriage). PREP does not focus on personality assessment or compatability testing (which predicts divorce, but not communication/conflict management problems and identifies traits not readily changeable), although methods can be used in conjunction with such assessments. Summarizes longitudinal study (survey and observational measures) of 135 couples recruited in Denver in 1980-81 (as treatment couples and to contrast later PREP/control/decliner couples). Predictive studies indicated that couples in which males were sig. lower in observed premarital problem solving facilitation (i.e., offering positive solutions) and problem solving inhibition (i.e., withdrawal) were more likely to become distressed or divorced than non-distressed counterparts (i.e., male conflict management [structured emotional management training] more critical; distressed and non-distressed couples showed no diffferences on validation (but invalidation and negative patterns were quite important). Discriminant analyses based on premarital communication and problem intensity scores, with demographics correctly classified 90% of the sample as married or divorced after 7 years (and similarly at 12 years), implying risk patterns (esp. management of negative affect) as foci for early intervention. Outcome findings suggest that couples who decline PREP training may exceed participants at the time of treatment, but experience less favorable outcomes at 5 years. PREP couples' divorce/separation rates were lower at 5 (8%) and 12 years (19%) than control group (19% [sig], 28% [n.s., suggesting need for booster sessions]). Relationship quality improved for PREP participants as evident by gains in conflict mgt. skills, post-test and at follow-ups to 12 years. PREP couples' relationship satisfaction remained high over the 3 years after participation (vs. typical decrease), and to 5 years for husbands. Lower levels of aggression were also evident among PREP couples.

Selection effects and attention-placebo factors were tested (albeit w/a small sample size) via random assignment comparison with Engaged Encounter (see Renick, et al., 1992), and revealed sig. higher positive communication and support validation. Comparisons among German couples indicate PREP participants score sig. higher than control couples in communication, conflict mgt. skills, and satisfaction (pre/post/and 1-3 yr. follow-ups). Similar results were found among Australian couples (Behrens & Halford, 1994). Church- and military-based programs are being initiated as broader tests.

Discusses issues of generalizability (lab research recruits may not be representative; procedures and provider competence may not be replicable), training model effects on quality control and flexible alteration (modules), value of even small amounts of training. Presents rationale for expanded tests in religious organizations: 1) most (74% first marriages; 58% second) married there; 2) most churches/synogogues support prevention; and 3) have traditions/structures for educational programming; and 4) embeddedness of religious organizations. Reviews plan to train religious leaders to deliver PMP skills and, via outcome research, answer: 1) training/dissemination effectiveness beyond laboratory; 2) PREP effectiveness in community setting, w/support from Hunt Alternatives Foundation and 135 Denver-area religious organizations (80% marrying 4+ couples in next year), of which 54 agreed to participate (11% in minority communities; 13% serving many minority members). Pilot participants were generally quite satisfied with the potential of PREP and showed traits of effective leadership.

Discusses application of PREP model to pregnant women at risk for depression and relationship distress, preliminary clinic-based feasibility study (95% participation, 72% interest, esp. among depressed/distressed [44% partner interest] w/wide ethnic diversity) and rationale for addressing mental health as well as physical health issues in preparation for childbirth/transition to parenthood. Closes with review of need, possibilities of prevention programming, concerns about serving those most in need.